Examples of interactions between shells up to geographic. Abstract: Geographical envelope. Study of chemical and geological composition

Introduction

1. Geographic shell as a material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earth shells

2. The circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope

3. Basic patterns of the geographical shell: unity and integrity of the system, rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonality

4. Differentiation of the geographical envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas

5. Altitudinal zones of mountains in different geographical zones

6. Physico-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems of physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography

The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographic shell is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous exchange of energy and mass between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic shell are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographical shell, humanity arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The geographic envelope was first defined by P.I. Brounov back in 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth.” This is the most complex part of our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere touch and interpenetrate. Only here is the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states possible. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun occurs; only within its boundaries did the emergence and spread of life become possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.

The geographic envelope is characterized by integrity, determined by the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.

The unevenness of development over time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a consequence of these processes, the different ages of individual parts of the geographical envelope, the inheritance of the course of natural processes, and the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographical shell allows in many cases to predict natural processes.

The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements of geographical science. It is still actively being developed and discussed. Because this teaching not only has a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the targeted accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Its practical significance is also great, since it is precisely this systematic approach to considering the infrastructure of geographical objects that underlies the geographic zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, let alone globally, any problems related to one way or another interaction man, society and nature: neither environmental, nor environmental management, nor generally optimizing the relationship between humanity and the natural environment.

The purpose of the test is to consider the geographical envelope from the perspective of modern ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be outlined and solved, the main of which will be:

1 consideration of the geographical shell as a material system;

2 consideration of the main patterns of the geographical envelope;

3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographical envelope;

4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.

The dynamics of the geographic shell depend entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth–Moon system also play a certain role.

The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographical shell of the upper crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The current state of the geographic shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of planet Earth.

Scientists distinguish three stages in the development of the geographical envelope: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years), was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance of higher forms of living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographical envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).

The geographic envelope is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The main material components of the geographic shell are the rocks that make up the earth's crust (with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; In polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is significant. The main energy components are gravitational energy, internal heat of the planet, radiant energy from the Sun and energy from cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it depends on the number of components included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural complex), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and interconnections, i.e., on the geographical structure.

A.A. Grigoriev placed the upper limit of the geographic envelope (GE) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, harmful to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.

Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. The density of O 3 is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. The total ozone content X in a vertical column of air ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if brought to normal pressure (1013.2 mbar) at t = 0 o C. The value X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.

Below the boundary of the ozone screen, air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly influences the formation of the relief.

S.V. Kalesnik places the upper limit of G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the foci of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of no more than 40-45 km and no less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper - above, from above, genesis - origin). This is a zone of sedimentary rocks that arise during the process of weathering, alteration of igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.

The views of D.L. differ from these ideas about the boundaries of civil defense. Armanda. D.L. Armand's geographical sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and under high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the geographic sphere itself, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the “Great Geographical Sphere”, including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with the lower horizon of which (700 -1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.

Geography is the science of the internal and external structure of the Earth, studying the nature of all continents and oceans. The main object of study is various geospheres and geosystems.

Introduction

Geographical envelope or GE is one of the basic concepts of geography as a science, introduced into circulation at the beginning of the 20th century. It denotes the shell of the entire Earth, a special natural system. The geographical shell of the Earth is a complete and continuous shell consisting of several parts that interact with each other, penetrate each other, and constantly exchange substances and energy with each other.

Fig 1. Geographical shell of the Earth

There are similar terms, with narrow meanings, used in the works of European scientists. But they do not designate a natural system, only a set of natural and social phenomena.

Stages of development

The geographical shell of the earth has gone through a number of specific stages in its development and formation:

• geological (prebiogenic)– the first stage of formation, which began about 4.5 billion years ago (lasted about 3 billion years);
• biological– the second stage, which began about 600 million years ago;
• anthropogenic (modern)- a stage that continues to this day, which began about 40 thousand years ago, when humanity began to have a noticeable impact on nature.

Composition of the Earth's geographic envelope

Geographical envelope- this is a planetary system, which, as is known, has the shape of a ball, flattened on both sides by pole caps, with an equator length of more than 40 tons km. GO has a certain structure. It consists of environments interconnected with each other.

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Some experts divide civil defense into four areas (which in turn are also divided):

• atmosphere;
• lithosphere;
• hydrosphere;
• biosphere.

The structure of the geographical envelope is not arbitrary in any case. It has clear boundaries.

Upper and lower limits

A clear zonation can be traced throughout the entire structure of the geographic shell and geographic environments.

The law of geographical zoning provides not only for the division of the entire shell into spheres and environments, but also for the division into natural zones of land and oceans. Interestingly, this division is naturally repeated in both hemispheres.

Zoning is determined by the nature of the distribution of solar energy across latitudes and the intensity of moisture (different in different hemispheres and continents).

Naturally, it is possible to determine the upper and lower boundaries of the geographic envelope. Upper limit located at an altitude of 25 km, and bottom line The geographical envelope passes at a level of 6 km under the oceans and at a level of 30-50 km on the continents. Although, it should be noted that the lower limit is arbitrary and there are still debates about its installation.

Even if we take the upper limit in the region of 25 km, and the lower one in the region of 50 km, then, compared to the overall size of the Earth, we get something like a very thin film that covers the planet and protects it.

Basic laws and properties of the geographical shell

Within these boundaries of the geographic envelope, there are basic laws and properties that characterize and define it.

• Interpenetration of components or intra-component movement– basic property (there are two types of intracomponent movement of substances – horizontal and vertical; they do not contradict or interfere with each other, although in different structural parts of the GO the speed of movement of components is different).
• Geographical zoning- the basic Law.
• Rhythm– repeatability of all natural phenomena (daily, annual).
• Unity of all parts of the geographical envelope due to their close relationship.

Characteristics of the Earth's shells included in the GO

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is important for maintaining heat, and therefore life on the planet. It also protects all living things from ultraviolet radiation and affects soil formation and climate.

The size of this shell is from 8 km to 1 t km (or more) in height. It includes:

• gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases);
• dust;
• water vapor

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into several interconnected layers. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

All the shells of the earth are similar. For example, they contain all types of aggregate states of substances: solid, liquid, gaseous.

Figure 2. Structure of the atmosphere

Lithosphere

The hard shell of the earth, the earth's crust. It has several layers, which are characterized by different thickness, thickness, density, composition:

• upper lithospheric layer;
• sigmatic shell;
• semi-metallic or ore shell.

The maximum depth of the lithosphere is 2900 km.

What does the lithosphere consist of? From solids: basalt, magnesium, cobalt, iron and others.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere consists of all the waters of the Earth (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and even groundwater). It is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies more than 70% of the space. Interestingly, there is a theory according to which the earth’s crust contains large reserves of water.

There are two types of water: salty and fresh. As a result of interaction with the atmosphere, during condensation, the salt evaporates, thereby providing the land with fresh water.

Fig 3. Hydrosphere of the Earth (view of the oceans from space)

Biosphere

The biosphere is the most “living” shell of the earth. It includes the entire hydrosphere, lower atmosphere, land surface and upper lithospheric layer. It is interesting that living organisms inhabiting the biosphere are responsible for the accumulation and distribution of solar energy, for the migration processes of chemicals in the soil, for gas exchange, and for redox reactions. We can say that the atmosphere exists only thanks to living organisms.

Figure 4. Components of the Earth's biosphere

Examples of interaction between the Earth's media (shells)

There are many examples of interaction between environments.

• During the evaporation of water from the surface of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, water enters the atmosphere.
• Air and water, penetrating through the soil into the depths of the lithosphere, make it possible for vegetation to rise.
• Vegetation provides photosynthesis, enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.
• The surface of the earth and oceans heat the upper atmosphere, creating a climate that supports life.
• Living organisms die and form soil.

What have we learned?

The concept of “geographical envelope” is controversial, the definition of the term is quite complex, but despite the fact that its use is periodically criticized, it is still used. In 7th grade geography lessons, the structure of the geographic envelope is examined in detail, the complex process of interaction between environments is briefly described, and it is explained that the geographic envelope is the object of study in geography and branch sciences.

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The geographical envelope of our planet includes four components: the hydrosphere and biosphere in full, and the atmosphere and lithosphere in part. At the same time, they do not function purely autonomously, but constantly interact. Parts of these systems are the components of the geographical shell: soil, plants, water, minerals, animals, etc.

Natural complexes

All components that are parts of the geographic envelope are divided horizontally into certain complexes. These are territories that are homogeneous not only in the modern composition of natural components, but also in their historical component. They have the same composition of waters (both above- and underground), geological part, and biocenosis.

Rice. 1. Components of the geographical envelope.

Natural complexes are formed due to the interaction of their constituent parts in the same way as the geographical envelope is formed due to the mutual influence of its components.

Natural complexes are not the same in size and today have already been significantly changed due to
due to the strong influence of the anthropogenic factor.

Communication of geographic shell components

Thanks to the cycles of matter and energy, which are described in the textbook for grade 7, the individual components of the geographical shell are connected enough to form an integrity. There are many different cycles (atmospheric, crustal, etc.), but the most important is the water cycle. Due to the fact that such an amazing substance as water is capable of transforming into different states, it coordinates all the components of the natural shell with each other and ensures their existence.

Figure 2. Water cycle.

The biological cycle is also important, when minerals become part of living organisms, then return to the mineral state again. This is an iterative process.

The tropospheric air circulation ensures the survival of the living components of the geographic envelope, and the hydrosphere also participates in it.

The speed of its occurrence depends on the region: it occurs fastest at the equator, slowest in the polar regions.

Rice. 3. Air circulation.

Living and nonliving components of the geographical envelope

Living Components- these are the components of the biosphere, that is, flora and fauna, as well as bacteria and fungi. They are the ones who participate in the biological cycle.

Water, air, minerals- these are non-living components that are included in the litho-, atmosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth.

What have we learned?

That the components that make up the geographical shell of our planet can be living and non-living, but they are all part of the earth’s spheres and, accordingly, certain cycles that ensure universal interaction. These components are combined into historically formed natural complexes that change under human influence. Such complexes exist due to the interaction of their parts.

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1. Geographical envelope, its components, relationships between them.

The geographic envelope is the envelope of the Earth, within which the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere mutually penetrate each other and interact. All parts of the geographic envelope listed in the definition are interconnected. For example, when a volcano erupts, particles of dust and ash enter the atmosphere, this impedes the flow of sunlight and the temperature of the Earth's surface decreases. The relationships between all the components of the geographic envelope can be traced using the example of the cycle of substances (water, chemical elements) and the cycle of energy. Scientists define the boundaries of the geographic envelope in different ways. The average thickness is 55 km. Behind upper limit They accept the tropopause - a transition layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, located at an altitude of 8-10 km in subpolar latitudes and up to 17 km above the equator. Bottom line, located in the lithosphere, conditional. Compared to the measurements of the Earth, the geographic shell is a thin film.

All components (components) of the geographical shell are connected into a single whole through the circulation of substances and energy. The greatest role is played by the air cycle in the troposphere, which contributes to the global water cycle. The role of the biological cycle is great in the life of GO. All cycles are interconnected and form a common global circulation of matter and energy, which ensures the development of civil engineering,

The geographic envelope is divided into continents and oceans, which, in turn, can be divided into separate areas of the earth's surface (it could be a small lake or a large forest) - natural complexes. A natural complex (abbreviated as PC) is a section of the earth’s surface that is distinguished by the characteristics of natural components that are in complex interaction. This area has more or less clearly defined boundaries and has a natural unity, which is also manifested in its appearance. Each natural complex differs from others in certain characteristics of its components (rocks, water, soils, vegetation, animals, etc.). The components of nature have gone through a long path of development, so their combinations are not random, but natural. There are many connections and interactions between the components. The interaction between components unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence each other. On land, PCs are called territorial, and in the ocean - aquatic. PCs experience the enormous influence of human economic activity. Man created new PCs: cities, roads, gardens, fields, parks, airfields, etc.

The largest natural complexes into which the geographical envelope is divided are continents and oceans. Each continent is a unique natural complex, differing from others in geographical location, size, surface structure, climatic features, and history of development.

2. Agrarian and industrial complex of the Vologda region. Problems and prospects for development.

The agro-industrial complex of the Vologda region is not a branch of specialization of the economy of the Vologda region, but it fully meets the population's needs for basic food products: meat, milk, chicken eggs and potatoes. At the same time, a number of sectors of the food and light industry have specialization significance, since their products enter into interregional exchange. Agriculture consists of two branches: livestock farming and farming. Livestock farming occupies a leading position. This is facilitated by a rich food supply - large areas of natural pastures and hayfields, including extensive floodplain meadows. The main areas of livestock farming are dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding. The main producers of meat and milk are the southern regions of the region - Vologda, Gryazovets, Cherepovets and Sheksninsky, as well as Totemsky in the east. Meat and milk processing is concentrated in these same areas. In addition to cattle breeding, pig farming is developed in the region. About 80% of the pig population is fattened in large complexes. Near Vologda there is the Nadeevo complex, where more than 40 thousand pigs are fattened at a time; a similar enterprise operates in the Cherepovets region. Poultry farming is developed in the Vologda region. Large, highly mechanized poultry farms are located in the vicinity of Vologda, Cherepovets, Sheksna and Veliky Ustyug. Agriculture plays a secondary role in the structure of the region's agriculture. The main function of agriculture is to provide feed for livestock. The main forage crops are sown grasses - clover, timothy and vetch, and pea-oat mixtures. Crops for food grain are limited by the region's location in the cold agroclimatic zone. The main grain crops are rye, barley and oats; in some southern regions, wheat crops are slightly common. The Vologda region is an area of ​​traditional flax growing, on the basis of which a fairly powerful flax processing complex was formed. After a decline, this industry is on the rise. Potato production not only meets our own needs, but also allows us to export surplus. Vegetable growing is concentrated in the suburbs of Vologda and Cherepovets. Light industry: there are two flax mills in the region - in Vologda "Vologda Textile" and in Krasavino - "Severlen". The mills receive flax fiber from flax mills, spin flax thread and produce fabric. Clothing and knitting industry enterprises operate in Vologda, Cherepovets and in a number of small towns and villages in the region. There is a sheepskin and fur factory in Vologda that produces fur coats, sheepskin coats, and sheepskin coats. In Veliky Ustyug there are light industrial enterprises: a leather and haberdashery factory, a felted shoe factory, and a brush factory. Food industry. Large enterprises of the dairy industry - Vologda, Cherepovets dairy plants, the Northern Milk company - Gryazovets, Sukhonsky milk canning plant in Sokol, Sheksninsky creamery, cheese-making plant in Ustyuzhna. The largest enterprises in the meat processing industry are plants in Vologda and Cherepovets. There is a fruit and vegetable canning plant in Vologda. The flour milling industry is represented by the Sheksninsky Bread Products Plant and the Vologda Flour Processing Plant - they supply the region’s needs for flour. There are large confectionery factories in Vologda and Cherepovets. A baby food plant was recently built in Vologda, and in Kadnikov a plant producing ready-to-eat breakfast foods in packaging for retail trade.

3. Determine from statistical materials, compare population growth rates in different parts of the country (as chosen by the teacher) and explain their differences.

Population growth is an increase in its number. It occurs due to natural and mechanical growth. These are closely related processes. Natural increase is the difference between the birth rate and death rate (it can also be negative, then they talk about natural population decline). Mechanical growth is migration.

To explain differences in growth, it is necessary to consider the entire complex of factors that determine natural growth and migration:

Standards of living,

Share of urban and rural population,

Level of economic development of the region,

National and religious traditions.

The geographic shell is the totality of all the shells of the Earth: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere. The total thickness of the geographic envelope is approximately 40 km (some sources call up to 100 km). It is in this shell of the Earth that there are all the necessary conditions for life.

In its development, the geographic envelope went through three main stages:

1) inorganic - before the appearance of life on Earth, at this stage the lithosphere, the primary ocean and the primary atmosphere were formed;

2) organic - the formation and development of the biosphere, which transformed all existing spheres of the Earth;

3) anthropogenic - the modern stage of development of the geographical shell, when with the advent of human society the active transformation of the geographical shell and the emergence of a new sphere - the noosphere - the sphere of the mind began.

The geographical envelope, changed by human economic activity, is called the geographical environment. In the near future, the geographical envelope and the geographical environment may become synonymous.
All shells of the Earth are in close relationship with each other. The main source of all processes in the geographic envelope is the energy of the Sun, which is associated with two important processes that create the geographic envelope - the water cycle and the development of life.

The geographical envelope is called the largest natural complex, which is characterized by integrity (due to the circulation of substances and energy), stability, rhythm (daily, annual, perennial rhythms), hierarchy and zonality (natural and climatic zones, natural zones and altitudinal zonation).

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Geographical envelope, its components, relationships between them

Livestock farming as a branch of the economy has existed for a very long time, however, natural conditions still influence the location of livestock farming, why now... livestock farming, like most branches of agriculture directly... the development of science and technology, modern selection, has led to the spread of certain breeds of animals in areas not previously...

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