home Audience 3 What is lymph? Lymphatic system The circulatory system receives lymph through

What is lymph? Lymphatic system The circulatory system receives lymph through

Lymph It's an absolutely amazing system.

Let's start with what lymph is. Imagine any organ (liver, kidneys), it contains the cells of which it consists, and the blood vessels through which nutrition comes. All intercellular fluid, which we have 50-60 liters, flows from here into the lymphatic vessels, passes through customs, i.e. pus goes out through separate ducts through the vagina, armpits, nose, mouth, sputum, and pure lymph goes further. Moreover, all the lymph through the lymphatic system goes only in one direction: from the bottom up.

The heart pushes blood into the organs through the vessels, in the organs the fluid from the blood goes into the intercellular tissue, part of the 10% fluid returns back to the blood, the rest of the fluid from the organ flows up the lymphatic ducts. Therefore, all lymphatic vessels go from bottom to top. If you are massaged from top to bottom, then the lymphatic system is destroyed. All massages should start from the fingertips and go to the central shaft. If the facial massage is done incorrectly, without taking into account the lymphatic ducts, then there will be nothing but swelling.

We all have a heart that pushes blood to all organs. Now imagine that the fluid has left the organ and then it flows through the lymphatic vessels without pushing effects and without suction from above. How does lymph move? Lymphatic vessels everything is inside the muscles. And the lymphatic heart is the muscles. There is no other mechanism for lifting lymph. The lymph vessel is surrounded by muscle tissues, and only when the muscle contracts, the lymph is pushed up. No other mechanism exists.

Therefore, sedentary people always have swelling, lymph stands. There is no cardiac edema, only lymphatic edema.

What is edema? Imagine a leg. In it, the lymphatic vessel is damaged, the fluid does not come out. So there will be swelling. The heart can push such water clots, but it is not very easy for it, because it needs to create such pressure from a height of one and a half meters to push this fluid. This is a very big load, naturally, the left ventricle is disturbed in the heart. Therefore, if there are swelling of the legs, shins, knees and above, this is all called the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes must not be touched, they must not be massaged, they must not be heated, they must not be touched, nothing can be done with them at all. Lymph nodes are living sacs in which white blood cells live. Moreover, leukocytes do not just live there, they work there, they have a place of work there. They destroy bacteria there every second, treat them from fungi, viruses, all sorts of protozoa. And all this is released into the nose and to various other landing sites.

The first site of disembarkation is the vagina in women and the urethra in men. If there are any viral foci, protozoa or bacteria, then the first thing to do, regardless of age, will be discharge from the genitals.

The second bridgehead is the intestines. Pus (dead white blood cells) in the stool indicates that white blood cells are successfully fighting viruses, etc.

The next springboard is the armpits, through which the lymph leaves along with hormones. Therefore, in no case should you use 24-hour deodorants, because we chemically stop the lymph flow, and all the lymph goes to the mammary glands.

The next springboard for the landing of pus is the nasal tonsils or adenoids. In everyone who has problems with adenoids, the lymph is affected by infections: streptococcus, fungi, staphylococcus, etc.

The next springboard is the tonsils. Angina. And then there are deep nodes - the larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

Why is it important to know how lymph flows? Because all edema in the body will be regarded by doctors as a cardiovascular pathology, i.e. not a heartbeat. In fact, most often it is a lymphatic pathology: blockage of the lymph nodes or contamination of the common lymphatic collector.

The water that is in the intercellular space is not just water. Hyaluronic acid is dissolved in it, this acid can be in two states: thick jelly or liquid jelly. At high temperatures, it becomes liquid jelly, and at low temperatures - thick jelly. Therefore, when we drink diaphoretic herbs, our lymph liquefies, and we begin to sweat, the lymph comes out through the vessels. When we jump into a cold pool, the lymph thickens and the lymph outflow stops.

If it is thick jelly all the time, i.e. a person does not take a steam bath in a bath, does not clean himself, drinks bad water, the water does not pass, then it will not work out of the blood vessel into the intercellular space, and the body will raise blood pressure in order to push through all the nutrients, oxygen, etc. under pressure.

Lymph differs from blood only in color. Lymph is white blood. It differs from blood only in erythrocytes. All erythrocytes remained inside the vessels. They are not allowed to go anywhere. All other microcells: leukocytes, macrophages, they can travel territorially. They can leave the blood, pass into a lymphatic vessel, move along a lymphatic vessel, work in the lymph nodes, go into the tissues, patrol, look for cancer cells there, look for some other cells, take these cells back, and either destroy them in the lymphatics. nodes, or excreted through the skin. If this does not go into the lymph, the body refuses to accept it, that is, there is still an exit through the skin. For example, mushrooms will always go through the skin. They will never go through the lymph, because a hundred more mushrooms follow one mushroom. And so they are always dumped in the form of diathesis over large lymph nodes. If a child has a fungus, then diathesis will be in the elbow folds, knee dimples, inguinal folds. All that is connected with the skin in these places is the defeat of the lymph.

What spoils the lymphatic system and causes disorders?

1. Psychology. Stress in the first place, especially strong, hits the lymph and immunity.

2. Food!!! Preservatives, preservatives, chemical acids, citric acid, formalin (lightly smoked and smoked, pickled products), enzyme quenchers (jams, long-term storage milk / sour cream). Eating with enzyme quenchers leads to the complete destruction of the lymphatic system.

3. Water. For the lymphatic system, water must be special. Warm. Cold is very dangerous for the lymph. The worst thing is the ice cream. When a person eats ice cream, his lymphatic vessels become paralyzed, lymphocytes stop moving, and immunity decreases tenfold. At this point, there is a colossal multiplication of bacteria and viruses. For some people, a couple of sips of milk from the refrigerator is enough to catch a sore throat. Angina is a total infectious process of damage to the lymphatic system. And it simultaneously affects the heart, kidneys, ovaries, thyroid gland, joints, heart valves, etc.

4. Temperature. High temperature is dangerous for the lymph. Temperatures above 40 degrees are contraindicated. It is IMPOSSIBLE to warm the lymph nodes! Keeping a laptop on your lap, taking hot foot baths, hot compresses are prohibited.

5. A B C D E!!! It is necessary to reduce the number of the CHD population. When we fight bacteria, the lymph bodies also die. Therefore, lymph does not like fighting to the death. It is better when BVHD stops multiplying. A fungus, for example, can die of old age, bacteria can stop multiplying and die of old age. For example, a person was blown away. What does this mean? It is not possible to blow a person. This is an incorrect expression. You had a blow in your right ear when you were driving in a car, your ear hurt. What happened? When you were driving, the temperature on the right was 36.6, and on the left it was 35.2 at the moment when the air was blowing. This was enough to reduce the rate of lymph flow through the capillaries by two or three times and so that the leukocytes did not come to their proper places, and the bacteria simply managed to multiply. Because bacteria are being absorbed every second, and if you sit somewhere on a cold stone, then, accordingly, the lymph flow will decrease in the ovarian zone, the prostate zone, and the bacteria will be able to multiply. Therefore, if you want the body not to lose its immunity, it must be at a more / less comfortable temperature. If you are not tempered, of course. If you are hardened by quick douches, then it is normal, but for a healthy person.

6. System cleaning. When you start to clean the lymph, there should be a result. There will be mucus from the nose, throat, sweating, mucus in the intestines. Cleaning takes place only on sorbents: clay, activated charcoal ... If during Colo-Vada a cough, runny nose, mucus in the intestines began, it means that lymph cleansing has begun. This is fine. It is impossible to extinguish such a cough. There must be profuse sweating. If you go to the bath for the purpose of cleaning, then the bath should be from 40 to 70 degrees. Before the bath, drink plenty of warm water. There will be a discharge of about 1 kg of lymph. If you raise the temperature of the bath higher, then the emergency sweat locks will simply turn on, and you will begin to sweat your nose, forehead, etc. If a person has a flow from his forehead, then his armpits do not work. A person must sweat in certain places designed for this. Inguinal folds, armpits, back of the neck, popliteal fossae, ankle joints, in some cases, hands and feet. In women, it may be even under the breasts.

7. Enzymes+ bacteria. There should be enough of them. The better everything is adjusted in the intestines, the better the bodice feels.

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Lymphatic system - an integral part of the vascular system that drains tissues by forming lymph and conducting it into the venous bed (additional drainage system).

Up to 2 liters of lymph are produced per day, which corresponds to 10% of the volume of fluid that is not reabsorbed after filtration in the capillaries.

Lymph is a fluid that fills the vessels of the lymphatic channel and nodes. It, like blood, belongs to the tissues of the internal environment and performs trophic and protective functions in the body. In its properties, despite the great similarity with blood, lymph differs from it. At the same time, lymph is not identical to the tissue fluid from which it is formed.

Lymph consists of plasma and formed elements. Its plasma contains proteins, salts, sugar, cholesterol and other substances. The protein content in the lymph is 8-10 times less than in the blood. 80% of the formed elements of the lymph are lymphocytes, and the remaining 20% are the share of other white blood cells. There are no normal erythrocytes in the lymph.

Functions of the lymphatic system:

Tissue drainage.

Ensuring continuous fluid circulation and metabolism in human organs and tissues. Prevents the accumulation of fluid in the tissue space with increased filtration in the capillaries.

Lymphopoiesis.

Transports fats away from the site of absorption in the small intestine.

Removal from the interstitial space of substances and particles that are not reabsorbed in the blood capillaries.

Spread of infection and malignant cells (tumor metastasis)

Factors that ensure the movement of lymph

Filtration pressure (due to the filtration of fluid from the blood capillaries into the intercellular space).

Permanent formation of lymph.

Availability of valves.

Contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscles and muscle elements of the internal organs (they squeeze the lymphatic vessels and the lymph moves in the direction determined by the valves).

The location of large lymphatic vessels and trunks near the blood vessels (the pulsation of the artery squeezes the walls of the lymphatic vessels and helps the lymph flow).

Suction action of the chest and negative pressure in the brachiocephalic veins.

Smooth muscle cells in the walls of lymphatic vessels and trunks .

Table 7

Similarities and differences in the structure of the lymphatic and venous systems

Lymph capillaries- thin-walled vessels, the diameter of which (10-200 microns) exceeds the diameter of blood capillaries (8-10 microns). The lymphatic capillaries are characterized by tortuosity, the presence of constrictions and expansions, lateral protrusions, the formation of lymphatic "lakes" and "lacunae" at the confluence of several capillaries.

The wall of the lymphatic capillaries is built from a single layer of endothelial cells (there is a basement membrane in the blood capillaries outside the endothelium).

Lymph capillaries No in the substance and membranes of the brain, cornea and lens of the eyeball, spleen parenchyma, bone marrow, cartilage, epithelium of the skin and mucous membranes, placenta, pituitary gland.

Lymphatic postcapillaries- an intermediate link between the lymphatic capillaries and blood vessels. The transition of the lymphatic capillary to the lymphatic postcapillary is determined by the first valve in the lumen (the valves of the lymphatic vessels are paired folds of the endothelium and the underlying basement membrane lying opposite each other). Lymphatic postcapillaries have all the functions of capillaries, but lymph flows through them in only one direction.

Lymphatic vessels are formed from networks of lymphatic postcapillaries (capillaries). The transition of a lymphatic capillary to a lymphatic vessel is determined by a change in the structure of the wall: in it, along with endothelium, there are smooth muscle cells and adventitia, and in the lumen - valves. Therefore, lymph can flow through the vessels in only one direction. The area of the lymphatic vessel between the valves is currently referred to by the term "lymphangion" (Fig. 58).

Rice. 58. Lymphangion - morphofunctional unit of a lymphatic vessel:

1 - segment of the lymphatic vessel with valves.

Depending on the localization above or below the superficial fascia, the lymphatic vessels are divided into superficial and deep. Superficial lymphatic vessels lie in the subcutaneous adipose tissue above the superficial fascia. Most of them follow to the lymph nodes located near the superficial veins.

There are also intraorganic and extraorganic lymphatic vessels. Due to the existence of numerous anastomoses, intraorganic lymphatic vessels form wide-looped plexuses. The lymphatic vessels emerging from these plexuses accompany the arteries, veins and exit the organ. Extraorgan lymphatic vessels are sent to nearby groups of regional lymph nodes, usually accompanying blood vessels, more often veins.

On the path of the lymphatic vessels are located The lymph nodes. This determines that foreign particles, tumor cells, etc. linger in one of the regional lymph nodes. The exceptions are some lymphatic vessels of the esophagus and, in isolated cases, some vessels of the liver, which flow into the thoracic duct, bypassing the lymph nodes.

Regional lymph nodes organ or tissue - these are the lymph nodes that are the first in the path of the lymphatic vessels that carry lymph from this area of the body.

lymph trunks- These are large lymphatic vessels that are no longer interrupted by lymph nodes. They collect lymph from several areas of the body or several organs.

There are four permanent paired lymph trunks in the human body.

jugular trunk(right and left) is represented by one or more vessels of small length. It is formed from the efferent lymphatic vessels of the lower lateral deep cervical lymph nodes located in a chain along the internal jugular vein. Each of them drains lymph from the organs and tissues of the corresponding sides of the head and neck.

subclavian trunk(right and left) is formed from the fusion of the efferent lymphatic vessels of the axillary lymph nodes, mainly the apical ones. It collects lymph from the upper limb, from the walls of the chest and mammary gland.

Bronchomediastinal trunk(right and left) is formed mainly from the efferent lymphatic vessels of the anterior mediastinal and upper tracheobronchial lymph nodes. It carries lymph away from the walls and organs of the chest cavity.

The efferent lymphatic vessels of the upper lumbar lymph nodes form the right and left lumbar trunks, which divert lymph from the lower limb, walls and organs of the pelvis and abdomen.

Inconsistent intestinal lymphatic trunk occurs in about 25% of cases. It is formed from the efferent lymphatic vessels of the mesenteric lymph nodes and flows into the initial (abdominal) part of the thoracic duct with 1-3 vessels.

Rice. 59. Basin of the thoracic lymphatic duct.

1 - superior vena cava;

2 - right brachiocephalic vein;

3 - left brachiocephalic vein;

4 - right internal jugular vein;

5 - right subclavian vein;

6 - left internal jugular vein;

7 - left subclavian vein;

8 - unpaired vein;

9 - semi-unpaired vein;

10 - inferior vena cava;

11 - right lymphatic duct;

12 - cistern of the thoracic duct;

13 - thoracic duct;

14 - intestinal trunk;

15 - lumbar lymphatic trunks

Lymphatic trunks flow into two ducts: the thoracic duct (Fig. 59) and the right lymphatic duct, which flow into the veins of the neck in the so-called venous angle formed by the union of the subclavian and internal jugular veins. The thoracic lymphatic duct flows into the left venous angle, through which lymph flows from 3/4 of the human body: from the lower extremities, pelvis, abdomen, left half of the chest, neck and head, left upper limb. The right lymphatic duct flows into the right venous angle, through which lymph is brought from 1/4 of the body: from the right half of the chest, neck, head, from the right upper limb.

thoracic duct (ductus thoracicus) has a length of 30-45 cm, is formed at the level of the XI thoracic -1 lumbar vertebrae by the fusion of the right and left lumbar trunks (trunci lumbales dexter et sinister). Sometimes at the beginning of the thoracic duct has extension (cisterna chyli). The thoracic duct is formed in the abdominal cavity and passes into the chest cavity through the aortic opening of the diaphragm, where it is located between the aorta and the right medial crus of the diaphragm, the contractions of which help to push the lymph into the thoracic duct. At the level of the VII cervical vertebra, the thoracic duct forms an arc and, having rounded the left subclavian artery, flows into the left venous angle or the veins that form it. At the mouth of the duct there is a semilunar valve that prevents the penetration of blood from the vein into the duct. The left bronchomediastinal trunk (truncus bronchomediastinalis sinister), which collects lymph from the left half of the chest, flows into the upper part of the thoracic duct, as well as the left subclavian trunk (truncus subclavius sinister), which collects lymph from the left upper limb and the left jugular trunk (truncus jugularis sinister), which carries lymph from the left half of the head and neck.

Right lymphatic duct (ductus lymphaticus dexter) 1-1.5 cm long, formed at the confluence of the right subclavian trunk (truncus subclavius dexter), which carries lymph from the right upper limb, the right jugular trunk (truncus jugularis dexter), which collects lymph from the right half of the head and neck, and the right bronchomediastinal trunk (truncus bronchomediastinalis dexter), which brings lymph from the right half of the chest. However, more often the right lymphatic duct is absent, and the trunks forming it flow into the right venous angle on their own.

Lymph nodes of certain areas of the body.

Head and neck

There are many groups of lymph nodes in the head region (Fig. 60): occipital, mastoid, facial, parotid, submandibular, submental, etc. Each group of nodes receives lymphatic vessels from the area closest to its location.

So, the submandibular nodes lie in the submandibular triangle and collect lymph from the chin, lips, cheeks, teeth, gums, palate, lower eyelid, nose, submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. In the parotid lymph nodes, located on the surface and in the thickness of the gland of the same name, lymph flows from the forehead, temple, upper eyelid, auricle, walls of the external auditory canal.

Fig.60. Lymphatic system of the head and neck.

1 - anterior ear lymph nodes; 2 - rear ear lymph nodes; 3 - occipital lymph nodes; 4 - lower ear lymph nodes; 5 - buccal lymph nodes; 6 - chin lymph nodes; 7 - posterior submandibular lymph nodes; 8 - anterior submandibular lymph nodes; 9 - lower submandibular lymph nodes; 10 - superficial cervical lymph nodes

There are two main groups of lymph nodes in the neck: deep and superficial cervical. Deep cervical lymph nodes in large numbers accompany the internal jugular vein, and superficial lie near the external jugular vein. In these nodes, mainly in the deep cervical ones, there is an outflow of lymph from almost all the lymphatic vessels of the head and neck, including the efferent vessels of other lymph nodes in these areas.

Upper limb

There are two main groups of lymph nodes on the upper limb: elbow and axillary. The ulnar nodes lie in the ulnar fossa and receive lymph from part of the vessels of the hand and forearm. Through the efferent vessels of these nodes, the lymph flows into the axillary nodes. Axillary lymph nodes are located in the fossa of the same name, one part of them lies superficially in the subcutaneous tissue, the other - in depth near the axillary arteries and veins. Lymph flows into these nodes from the upper limb, as well as from the mammary gland, from the superficial lymphatic vessels of the chest and the upper part of the anterior abdominal wall.

chest cavity

In the chest cavity, the lymph nodes are located in the anterior and posterior mediastinum (anterior and posterior mediastinal), near the trachea (peritracheal), in the bifurcation of the trachea (tracheobronchial), in the hilum of the lung (bronchopulmonary), in the lung itself (pulmonary), and also on the diaphragm. (upper diaphragmatic), near the heads of the ribs (intercostal), near the sternum (peripheral), etc. Lymph flows from the organs and partially from the walls of the chest cavity into these nodes.

lower limb

On the lower extremity, the main groups of lymph nodes are popliteal and inguinal. The popliteal nodes are located in the fossa of the same name near the popliteal arteries and veins. These nodes receive lymph from part of the lymphatic vessels of the foot and lower leg. The efferent vessels of the popliteal nodes carry lymph mainly to the inguinal nodes.

Inguinal lymph nodes are divided into superficial and deep. Superficial inguinal nodes lie below the inguinal ligament under the skin of the thigh on top of the fascia, and deep inguinal nodes lie in the same area, but under the fascia near the femoral vein. Lymph flows into the inguinal lymph nodes from the lower limb, as well as from the lower half of the anterior abdominal wall, perineum, from the superficial lymphatic vessels of the gluteal region and lower back. From the inguinal lymph nodes, lymph flows to the external iliac nodes, which are related to the nodes of the pelvis.

In the pelvis, the lymph nodes are located, as a rule, along the course of the blood vessels and have a similar name (Fig. 61). So, the external iliac, internal iliac and common iliac nodes lie near the arteries of the same name, and the sacral nodes lie on the pelvic surface of the sacrum, near the median sacral artery. Lymph from the pelvic organs flows mainly to the internal iliac and sacral lymph nodes.

Rice. 61. Lymph nodes of the pelvis and the vessels connecting them.

1 - uterus; 2 - right common iliac artery; 3 - lumbar lymph nodes; 4 - iliac lymph nodes; 5 - inguinal lymph nodes

abdominal cavity

There are a large number of lymph nodes in the abdominal cavity. They are located along the course of the blood vessels, including the vessels passing through the gates of the organs. So, along the course of the abdominal aorta and the inferior vena cava near the lumbar spine, there are up to 50 lymph nodes (lumbar). In the mesentery of the small intestine along the branches of the superior mesenteric artery lies up to 200 nodes (superior mesenteric). There are also lymph nodes: celiac (near the celiac trunk), left gastric (along the greater curvature of the stomach), right gastric (along the lesser curvature of the stomach), hepatic (in the region of the gate of the liver), etc. Lymph from the organs flows into the lymph nodes of the abdominal cavity, located in this cavity, and partly from its walls. Lymph from the lower extremities and pelvis also enters the lumbar lymph nodes. It should be noted that the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine are called lactiferous, since lymph flows through them, containing fat absorbed in the intestine, which gives the lymph the appearance of a milky emulsion - hilus (hilus - milky juice).

The lymphatic system is an integral part of the vascular system and is, as it were, an additional channel of the venous system, with which it has common structural features (the presence of valves, the direction of lymph flow from tissues to the heart).

Her main functions- conduction of lymph from tissues to the venous bed (transport, resorption and drainage functions) (Fig. 49), the formation of lymphoid elements (lymphopoiesis) involved in immunological reactions, as well as the neutralization of foreign particles, bacteria, etc. entering the body. (barrier role). Malignant tumor cells also spread through the lymphatic pathways.

Rice. 49. Movement of blood, tissue fluid

and lymph in the human body.

lymphatic system found in all organs of the body. It consists of numerous lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels of various diameters and lymph nodes.

Lymphatic vessels filled with lymph, which moves in one direction - from the organs to the heart and pours into the venous bed. Sports massage promotes the outflow of lymph from organs and tissues. Therefore, they usually massage along the course of the lymphatic vessels, which contributes to the faster movement of the lymph.

Lymph It is a clear liquid that contains white shaped elements - lymphocytes, a small amount of eosinophils and monocytes. In its composition, lymph resembles blood plasma, but the protein content in it is less than in plasma. Cells secrete the products of their metabolism into it. The formation of lymph occurs due to the liquid part of the blood plasma, which is filtered into the lymphatic channel through the main substance of the connective tissue surrounding the blood capillaries. The movement of lymph is much slower than the movement of blood and is due to the pushing action of the newly formed lymph and the physiological activity of organs, in particular muscle contraction.

The lymphatic system is not closed, like the circulatory system (large and small circles of blood circulation). It begins blindly with a network of lymphatic capillaries in all tissues and ends in the large veins of the neck. Another difference between the lymphatic system and the circulatory system is the presence along the lymphatic vessels of the lymph nodes in which the formation of lymphocytes occurs.

Anatomically, the following parts are distinguished in the lymphatic system: lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic trunks and ducts.

Lymph capillaries blindly begin in organs and tissues and carry out absorption (resorption) from the tissues of colloidal solutions of protein substances that have not been absorbed into the blood capillaries. They are additional to the veins drainage of tissues, because. they suck up water and substances dissolved in it, remove foreign particles, bacteria, etc. from tissues under pathological conditions. The wall of the lymphatic capillaries is built from a single layer of endothelial cells. They are found in all organs, with the exception of the spinal cord and brain, spleen, epithelial cover of the skin, cartilage, cornea and lens of the eye, placenta and pituitary gland. Lymphatic capillaries in organs form lymphatic networks, from which intraorganic lymphatic vessels, going along with the blood.

From every organ extraorganic lymphatic vessels, that accompany the arteries and veins and go to the lymph nodes.

The lymph nodes located along the course of the lymphatic vessels. They consist of lymphoid and connective tissues and are organs of lymphopoiesis and antibody formation. In them, particles and pathogens alien to the body are retained and neutralized, the lymph is enriched with lymphocytes. Lymph nodes that are the first in the path of lymphatic vessels that carry lymph from a given area of \u200b\u200bthe body or organ are called regional. The size of the lymph nodes range from 2 to 30 mm.

Each lymph node is covered with a connective tissue capsule, from which septa extend into the node, dividing the node into lobules. Several afferent (abducting) lymphatic vessels approach the lymph node, through which the lymph enters it; one or two efferent vessels depart from the node, through which its outflow occurs (Fig. 50).

Rice. 50. The structure of the lymph node.

The lymph node consists of the cortical and medulla located outwards. The cortex contains follicles containing immunocompetent cells (B-lymphocytes). The medulla is represented by strands, which are a zone of accumulation of B-lymphocytes associated with the development of humoral immunity. The lymphatic system also includes lymphoid organs (lymph follicles, tonsils), which have only efferent lymphatic vessels.

Lymph nodes can lie in isolation or in separate groups. In total, a person has about 460 of them. The largest groups of lymph nodes include: in the head and neck - submandibular, anterior and posterior cervical; on the upper limb - elbow and axillary; in the chest cavity - anterior and posterior mediastinal; in the abdominal cavity - celiac and superior mesenteric; on the lower limbs - popliteal and inguinal. During massage, the movement of the hands should be directed along the flow of lymph to the nearest lymph nodes.

After passing through the last group of lymph nodes, the lymphatic vessels are connected into lymphatic trunks (Fig. 51), corresponding in number and location to large parts of the body - the lumbar trunk (for the lower limb and pelvis), the subclavian trunk (for the upper limb), the jugular trunk (for head and neck), paired bronchomediastinal (for the organs of the chest cavity) and intestinal trunk (for the organs of the abdominal cavity). All these trunks are connected into two terminal ducts - the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (Fig. 51), which flow into large veins, mainly into the internal jugular veins or into the venous angles formed by the confluence of the internal jugular vein and subclavian.

Rice. 51. Trunks and ducts of the lymphatic system.

thoracic duct collects most of the lymph. Lymph flows into it from both lower extremities, abdominal organs, the left half of the chest, the left half of the head and neck, and the left upper limb. It begins at the level of 1-2 lumbar vertebrae as a result of the fusion of the right and left lumbar trunks, passes through the chest cavity and opens into the left venous angle, formed by the fusion of the left subclavian and internal jugular veins.

Right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right upper limb, the right half of the head, neck and chest. It flows into the right venous angle or right subclavian vein.

BODIES OF HEMATOPOISIS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Blood and lymphatic vessels are always filled with blood or lymph, respectively, which include the formed elements of blood. Their function and structure are diverse: erythrocytes carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, various leukocytes are involved in the regulatory and protective reactions of the body.

Blood and lymph cells develop into red bone marrow. It is a tender mass, rich in blood vessels, which is based on reticular tissue. In its loops, blood and lymph cells are born from special cellular elements - stem cells. Therefore, the red bone marrow is both an organ of hematopoiesis and one of the central organs of the immune system. Red bone marrow is located in the spongy substance of flat bones (sternum), in the spongy substance of the epiphyses of long (tubular) bones.

Immunology the science of immunity. It arose from the vital need to prevent and treat infectious diseases. The body itself is able to develop protective properties against infections. Among blood cells - leukocytes - 30% are lymphocytes, which carry out all specific immune reactions - the production of antibodies that fight microorganisms, rejection of transplanted tissues or organs from another person, antiviral protection.

The entire immune system of the body consists of two separate, but working together systems. They are denoted by the Latin letters T and B.

T-lymphocyte system represented by the central lymphoid organ - the thymus gland (thymus). Only in it T-lymphocytes develop from the stem cells of the bone marrow entering this organ.

TO B-lymphocyte system The second central lymphoid organ is the bone marrow. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies. The immune process is also provided phagocytes- white blood cells that can eat microorganisms that enter the human body.

Each group of cells performs a strictly defined function. B-lymphocytes carry out mainly the functions of humoral immunity. In it, the main role belongs to fluids (blood, lymph, glandular secretion), which contain special substances involved in immune processes. T-lymphocytes of the thymus gland carry out cellular immunity, in which lymphocytes of special sensitivity destroy cells that enter the body.

Thus, the whole cellular complex works together in the immune system. Circulating in the body, it interacts with it using receptors and chemical signals of various mediators that can increase or decrease the functional activity of immune blood cells. The main role in it belongs to the thymus gland. Immunity “ripens” only after birth, therefore, in newborns, the thymus gland is relatively large, since lymphocytes located in peripheral lymphoid organs (in the lymph nodes, spleen, in the lymphoid tissue of the walls of the organs of the digestive, respiratory systems, urinary tract), as well as circulating with blood, without the thymus, they cannot start working - to recognize and destroy foreign cells.

Immunity is the body's forces that protect it not only from microorganisms and viruses, but also from all genetically alien cells, tissues and organs. Therefore, the problem of incompatibility in organ transplants from another person is immunological. The main task of modern immunological science is the search for ways to protect the body from living bodies and substances that carry signs of genetically alien information.

Spleen is a richly vascularized lymphoid organ. In the spleen, the circulatory system comes into close contact with the lymphoid tissue, due to which the blood here is enriched with leukocytes developing in the spleen. In addition, the blood passing through the spleen is released due to the phagocytic activity of macrophages of the spleen from obsolete red blood cells (“graveyard” of erythrocytes) and from pathogenic microbes that have entered the bloodstream, suspended foreign particles, etc.

The spleen is located in the left hypochondrium at the level of 9 to 11 ribs. The peritoneum, growing together with the capsule of the spleen, covers it from all sides.

Rice. 52. The structure of the spleen.

The proper capsule of the spleen continues into the thickness of the organ in the form of crossbars, forming the skeleton of the spleen, dividing it into separate sections. Between the trabeculae is the pulp of the spleen, which contains lymphatic follicles (Fig. 52). The pulp consists of reticular tissue, various cellular elements, lymphocytes, and decaying erythrocytes. The lymphoid tissue of the spleen contains lymphocytes involved in immunological reactions. In the pulp, the death of part of the blood cells is carried out. Hemoglobin iron from destroyed red blood cells is sent through the veins to the liver, where it serves as a material for the synthesis of bile pigments.

The part of the vascular system that frees the tissues of the body from metabolic products, infectious agents and their toxins is called the lymphatic. It contains vessels, nodes, ducts, as well as organs involved in the formation of lymphocytes.

With insufficient immune protection, tumor and microbial cells can spread along the lymphatic pathways. Stagnation of lymph leads to the accumulation of excretory products in the tissues. To improve the drainage function of the lymphatic system, massage and special cleaning methods are prescribed.

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The composition of the lymphatic system includes capillary, intraorganic and stem vessels, nodes and lymphatic organs.

Vessels

Inside the organs there is a network of small lymphatic capillaries, they have very thin walls through which large particles of protein and liquid easily penetrate from the intercellular space. In the future, they are combined into vessels similar to veins, but with more permeable membranes and a developed valve apparatus.

Vessels from the organs carry lymph to the nodes. In appearance, the lymphatic network is similar to beads. Such a structure arises due to the alternation of areas of narrowing and expansion at the site of attachment of the semilunar valves. The penetration of tissue fluid into the capillaries is explained by the difference in osmotic pressure (the lymph is more concentrated), and the reverse flow is impossible due to the valves.

Knots

They have many incoming vessels and 1 or 2 outgoing vessels. The shape is similar to a bean or a ball about 2 cm. They filter the lymphatic fluid, linger and inactivate toxic substances and microbes, and the lymph is saturated with cells of the immune system - lymphocytes.

The fluid that moves through the lymphatic vessels has a whitish or yellowish color. Its composition depends on the organ from which it comes.

The following elements penetrate into the lymph:

water;
proteins (large molecules);
destroyed and tumor cells;
bacteria;
particles of dust and smoke from the lungs;
fluid from the abdominal cavity, pleura and pericardium, joints;
any foreign particles.

Basic functions in the body

The biological role of the lymphatic system is associated with the following activities:

the formation of lymphocytes responsible for cellular and humoral (with the help of special blood proteins) immunity;
delay in the lymph node of mechanical impurities, microbes and toxic compounds;
return to the venous vessels of purified blood;
transfer of fats from the intestinal lumen to the blood;
additional tissue drainage to reduce swelling;
absorption from the tissue fluid of large protein molecules, which themselves cannot enter the blood vessels due to their size.

Watch the video about the human lymphatic system and its functions:

Lymph movement pattern

The initial absorption of tissue fluid occurs in the organs by lymphatic capillaries. The resulting lymph through the network of vessels enters the nodes. Purified and saturated with lymphocytes, the fluid from the lymph node moves into the trunks and ducts. There are only two of them in the body:

chest - collects lymph from the left upper limb, the left side of the head, chest and all parts of the body lying under the diaphragm;
right - contains fluid from the right arm, half of the head and chest.

The ducts carry lymph to the left and right subclavian veins. It is at the level of the neck that the lymphovenous anastomosis is located, through which the penetration of the lymphatic fluid into the venous blood passes.

For the promotion of lymph, the simultaneous action of the following factors is required:

the pressure of the fluid that is formed continuously;
contraction of the smooth muscles of the vessels between the two valves - the muscular cuff (lymphangion);
fluctuations in the walls of arteries and veins;
muscle compression during body movements;
suction effect of the chest during breathing.

Organs of the lymphatic system

Lymphoid tissue is found in various structures. They are united by the fact that they all serve as a site for the formation of lymphocytes:

the thymus is located behind the sternum, ensures the maturation and "specialization" of T-lymphocytes;
bone marrow is present in the tubular bones of the limbs, pelvis, ribs, contains immature stem cells, from which blood cells are subsequently formed;
pharyngeal tonsils are located in the nasopharyngeal region, protect against microbes, participate in hematopoiesis;
the appendix departs from the initial section of the large intestine, cleanses the lymph, forms enzymes, hormones and bacteria involved in the digestion of food;
spleen - the largest organ of the lymphatic system, adjacent to the stomach in the left half of the abdominal cavity, acts as a filter for bacteria and foreign particles, produces antibodies, lymphocytes and monocytes, regulates the functioning of the bone marrow;
lymph nodes of internal organs (single or clusters) take part in the formation of cells for immune protection - T and B lymphocytes.

Types and groups of diseases

In diseases of the lymphatic system, inflammatory processes can occur:

lymphangitis - capillaries, vessels and trunks that are in contact with the focus of suppuration are affected;
lymphadenitis - lymph nodes are involved, the infection penetrates with lymph or directly through the skin (mucosa) in case of injuries.

Lesions of the organs of the lymphatic system can manifest as tonsillitis when the tonsils are infected, appendicitis (inflammation of the appendix, appendix). Pathological changes in the thymus lead to muscle weakness, autoimmune processes, tumors.

Violation of the bone marrow causes a variety of changes in the composition of the blood: cell deficiency with a decrease in immunity (), clotting (), oxygen supply (anemia), malignant blood tumors.

Enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly) occurs in diseases of the blood, liver, typhoid fever. An abscess or cyst may also form in the tissue.

Stagnation of lymph fluid leads to the development of lymphedema (lymph edema). It occurs when there is an obstruction in the vessels of a congenital (structural anomaly) or acquired nature. Secondary lymphedema accompanies injuries, burns, infections, and surgical interventions. With the progression of lymphostasis, elephantiasis of the lower extremities occurs, requiring surgery.

Elephantiasis of the lower extremities

Tumor processes involving lymphatic vessels are more often benign. They are called lymphangiomas. They are found on the skin, in the subcutaneous layer, as well as in places of accumulation of lymphoid tissue - the neck, head, chest, abdominal cavity, inguinal and axillary regions. With malignancy, lymphosarcoma is located in the same areas.

Causes of disorders in the body

Inflammatory and tumor processes occur when the immune system malfunctions, when it ceases to cope with the body's defense function. This may be due to external factors:

Chronic foci of infection in the body, as well as a weak function of the excretory organs, contribute to an excessive load on the lymphatic system. The result is a decrease in its essential functions. Of no small importance for the lymphatic flow is the state of the circulatory system, of which the lymphatic system is a part.

Stagnant processes occur in the following pathological conditions:

circulatory failure - arterial (weakness of cardiac activity) and venous (,);
physical inactivity, obesity;
diseases of the kidneys, liver, intestines;
congenital anomalies in the development of the organs of the lymphatic system;
injuries and operations, burns.

Symptoms of the onset of diseases

If the movement of lymph in the lower extremities is disturbed, swelling occurs, especially after intense exercise. If treatment is not carried out at this stage, then tissue edema (lymphedema) becomes dense, there is heaviness in the legs, cramps and soreness.

Inflammatory diseases of the vessels and nodes of the lymphatic system are manifested in the form of regional redness, swelling and thickening of the skin. This is accompanied by high fever, chills and headache. With deep lymphangitis, there are no external manifestations, but the affected area increases in volume due to tissue edema. Lymph nodes with lymphadenitis become painful, dense, they can be easily felt.

Submandibular lymphadenitis

Condition Diagnostics

In order to examine the patency of the lymphatic vessels and the outflow blocking zone, the following methods are used:

X-ray controlled lymphography, CT or MRI determine valvular insufficiency, structural anomalies. A normal lymphogram has the appearance of uneven accumulations of a contrast agent in the form of beads.
Lymphoscintigraphy with technetium allows you to detect foci of radioisotope concentration in the zone of lymph stagnation.
Ultrasound with - areas of vasoconstriction, changes in the nodes.
Computer thermography is used for differential diagnosis with phlegmon, phlebitis and osteomyelitis.
Biopsy of the lymph node - reveals blood tumors, cancer metastases.
Blood tests - with inflammation, leukocytosis is noted, when sowing, it is possible to determine the causative agent of the infection.

If tuberculosis is suspected, tests with tuberculin (Mantoux) and chest x-ray are performed.

Treatment options

In the initial stages of lymph stagnation, predominantly non-drug methods are used - massage, magnetotherapy, wearing compression stockings. A good effect was obtained from mechanical pneumocompression and laser treatment for diseases of the lymphatic vessels.

With severe lymphedema, appoint:

phlebotonics (Detralex, Cyclo-3-fort, Aescin);
enzymes - Wobenzym, Trypsin;
angioprotectors - Trental, Quercetin;
- Lasix, Trifas (no more than 2 - 3 days).

If there is a threat of sepsis, then ultraviolet blood irradiation can be used. At the stage of resorption or with sluggish inflammation, local compresses, dressings with Dimexide, Dioxidine, Chymotrypsin, and mud treatment are indicated.

The progression of lymphatic stagnation with the formation of elephantiasis of the limbs is treated by laying outflow paths during microsurgical operations.

How to cleanse the lymphatic system

To improve the movement of lymph in the body, traditional medicine, massage techniques are used. An important condition for the prevention of diseases is the motor mode - the load should be at least 30 minutes, the normal walking in nature, breathing exercises have a healing effect.

For the accelerated removal of metabolic products from the body and the neutralization of toxic compounds, use:

sauna (steam room, bath);
bath with warm water and sea salt;
saturation of tissues with clean water;
restriction of dairy, meat products, white bread, starch;
juices from cherries, blackberries, grapes, cranberries;
salad of fresh beets and red cabbage with lemon;
adding parsley and dill, lettuce and fresh garlic to food;
herbal tea from clover, elderflower, nettle (a teaspoon of one of the herbs in a glass of boiling water three times a day);
tincture of echinacea or eleutherococcus 15 drops in the morning;
chicory instead of coffee;
spices - ginger, turmeric, fennel;
instead of sweets - currants, blackberries, lingonberries and blueberries;
Swedish bitter tincture - 10 g of juice from aloe leaves, a tablespoon of wormwood, rhubarb and senna leaves, on the tip of a knife - turmeric and saffron. Pour a liter of vodka and insist for 15 days. Drink a teaspoon with tea.

The impact of massage

Lymphatic drainage is enhanced by the use of strokes on the lymph flow. Since its movement occurs only from the bottom up, then the massage movements should have a similar direction.

In this case, the following changes occur in the tissues:

accelerates the movement of fluid from the tissues into the lymphatic capillaries;
puffiness decreases,
products of metabolic processes are removed faster.

Pressing and squeezing works deeper into soft tissues, and vibration enhances microcirculation. Massage is contraindicated in any acute process in the body, and especially in the presence of a purulent focus, since in these cases, accelerated lymph flow will lead to the spread of the lesion to other organs and tissues.

The lymphatic system has a drainage function, is involved in metabolic processes and the formation of cells of the immune system. In case of overvoltage (due to external factors or against the background of diseases), immunity fails, which contributes to inflammatory or tumor processes.

Antibacterial drugs, venotonics, angioprotectors can be used for treatment. In severe cases, surgery is indicated. To cleanse the lymphatic system, you need to adjust your diet, move as much as possible, drink herbal teas, take a course of lymphatic drainage massage.

Briefly about the lymphatic system

In order to understand what lymph is, it is necessary to understand the lymphatic system, which is understood as the totality of the lymphatic pathways (lymph capillaries, vessels, trunks and large ducts) and lymph nodes. They take in the fluid flowing from the organs and various parts of the body.

This system provides the formation and transportation of lymphatic fluid into the venous system. It performs filtration and protective functions, has a direct effect on the formation of lymphocytes and homeostasis. The lymphatic pathways themselves complement the venous bed in their structure and functions. The peculiarity of their structure suggests the possibility of atypical cells and infectious agents entering the lymphatic system.

What is lymph

Lymph is a specific fluid that circulates in the intercellular space, lymphatic vessels and capillaries. It has a similar chemical composition with blood plasma, cerebrospinal and interstitial fluids. In its composition it contains lymphoplasm with a low content of proteins and shaped elements, which are represented by lymphocytes.

Lymphocrit is the ratio of the volume of all lymphocytes to the total volume of the liquid part, while in the peripheral lymph it is no more than 1-2%, which indicates a low content of cells relative to the blood.

It is quite difficult to determine the total volume of lymphatic fluid that circulates in the human body, however, experimental studies have shown that its average content varies from 1.5 to 2 liters.

Kinds

Lymph is divided into:

Central. It is located in the large thoracic duct, before it enters the vein.
Intermediate. Filtered in one or more lymph nodes.
Peripheral. Before entering any lymph node.

The liquid part of the lymphatic system has the following properties: specific gravity ranges from 1.011 to 1.022, acid-base balance has an alkaline reaction (8.3-9.1), ion pressure is close to that in blood plasma. And the oncotic, on the contrary, is lower due to the low content of albumins, and the lymph also has a low viscosity.

Composition and color of lymphoplasm

Answering the question of what is contained in the lymph, it is important to know that its composition in one vessel may differ slightly from the composition in another. For example, the fluid that carries out the outflow through the lymphatic vessels from the intestine contains a high concentration of fats (up to 35-40 g per liter), from the hepatobiliary system - more carbohydrates (up to 1.4 g / l) and protein structures (up to 65 g / l) . The variability of the lymphatic composition depends on two reasons: the content of the liquid part of the blood and the nature of tissue metabolism.

The electrolyte composition of the lymph is as follows:

The sodium concentration is in the range of 114-138 mmol per liter.
Potassium ions are contained in a concentration of 3.5-5.9 mmol / l.
Calcium is 2-3.2 mmol per liter.
Magnesium is contained in the range from 0.5 to 1.6 mmol / l.
Chlorine - 91.0-140.3 mmol per liter.

Also, the lymphoplasm contains a concentration of protein fractions different from the blood:

Albumins - from 14.9 to 42.0 grams per liter.
The concentration of globulins ranges from 9.8 to 16.0 g / l (of which alpha-1-globulins - from 3 to 9%, alpha-2 - 5-11%).
The content of fibrinogen is in the range of 1.4 - 4.5 g per liter.
Prothrombin (factor of the blood coagulation system) - 31.0 - 78.0%.
Total protein - 24.0 - 54.9 g / l.

As mentioned earlier, lymph cells are mainly represented by lymphocytes and monocytes, the number of which varies throughout the day.

There are very few granular cells in the lymphatic fluid; red blood cells are normally completely absent. In the case of inflammation or other pathological factors, the permeability of the vascular wall may increase. And then the erythrocytes will also sweat into the lymphatic vessels, giving their contents a red color.

The cellular formula of lymph is represented by the following shaped elements:

Lymphocytes - about 85-90%.
Monocytes - up to 5%.
Neutrophils - 0.5-1%.
Eosinophilic cells - from 1 to 2%.
The rest is about 2%.

Having a certain amount of platelets, prothrombin and fibrinogen, the lymphoplasm has the ability to coagulate and form clots. Clotting time normally takes 11-15 minutes.

In order to understand what lymph looks like, it is enough to remember that sometimes a transparent, colorless liquid flows out of small wounds. This is the content of the lymphatic vessels, which is called the ichor in the common people. However, its color can change: with a high content of fat and fatty acids, it becomes white, when erythrocytes enter it, it becomes bright red, in case of inflammation, pus, the color becomes dirty yellow.

Functions of the lymphoplasm

The functions of lymph in the human body are as follows:

It takes part in maintaining homeostasis, affects the volume and composition of the intercellular fluid.
Carries out the return of electrolytes, water and protein structures back into the bloodstream.
It affects the redistribution of fluid throughout the body, thereby preventing the development of external and internal edema.
Absorbs and transports emulsified fats from the small intestine to the blood vessels.
It absorbs and filters the waste products of normal cells and microorganisms.
It is a liquid medium that carries lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells (antibody precursors) to secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen, etc.), indirectly performing a protective function.
Provides neuroendocrine connection between various tissues and internal organs, lymphatic system and blood.
It promotes the spread of infectious pathogens if they enter the body and malignant cells, which subsequently settle and form daughter tumors - metastases.

Formation and flow of lymphoplasm

Lymphatic plasma is formed due to the penetration of interstitial fluid into the lymphatic capillaries by active and passive transport (everyone knows that any fluid moves in the direction of high hydrostatic pressure).

In order to understand how lymph flows in the human body, it is necessary to know the structure of lymphocapillaries and their neighboring structures.
Capillaries, which have three walls in their composition, are located next to the veins, which have a large number of valves. Thus, with the help of opening-closing valves in the veins, the movement of the liquid part in the capillaries occurs, this process is also influenced by the contraction of adjacent muscles and the suction capacity of the chest during inhalations. They also proceed with a change in the composition and quality of the lymphatic fluid.
There are no specific studies for the diagnosis of lymphoplasma. In diseases of the lymphatic system, computed tomography is used, and occasionally scintigraphy. Only when non-transparent lymph flows out of the wound, can it be sent for bacteriological examination to exclude infection.

Human lymph performs a significant number of important functions: it drains organs and tissues, returns the necessary proteins to the bloodstream, affects the constancy of the internal environment, but at the same time is a “carrier” of bacteria, viruses and tumor cells. In its composition it contains cells of the immune system - lymphocytes, differs from blood plasma not only in the concentration of proteins, electrolytes, but also in acid-base balance, specific gravity and viscosity.