Where did the Crimean War take place? Crimean War. Briefly
In the middle of the 19th century, some disagreements arose between Russia on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire, as well as a number of European states on the other, regarding the division of spheres of influence in the Black Sea and the East. This conflict eventually led to an armed confrontation called the Crimean War, the reasons, course of military operations and results of which will be discussed briefly in this article.
Increasing anti-Russian sentiments in Western European countries
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was going through difficult times. It lost some of its territories and was on the verge of complete collapse. Taking advantage of this situation, Russia tried to increase its influence on some countries of the Balkan Peninsula that were under Ottoman control. Fearing that this could lead to the emergence of a number of independent states loyal to Russia, as well as the appearance of its ships in the Mediterranean Sea, England and France launched anti-Russian propaganda in their countries. Articles constantly appeared in newspapers that gave examples of the aggressive military policy of Tsarist Russia and its possibility of conquering Constantinople.
Causes of the Crimean War, briefly about the events of the early 50s of the 19th century
The reason for the start of the military confrontation was disagreements regarding the ownership of Christian churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church, supported by the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Catholics, under the patronage of France, on the other, have been fighting for a long time for ownership of the so-called keys to the temple. As a result, the Ottoman Empire supported France, giving it the right to own holy places. Nicholas I could not come to terms with this and in the spring of 1853 he sent A.S. Menshikov to Istanbul, who was supposed to negotiate the provision of churches under the management of the Orthodox Church. But as a result, he received a refusal from the Sultan, Russia moved to more decisive actions, as a result of which the Crimean War broke out. We will briefly consider its main stages below.
Start of hostilities
This conflict was one of the largest and most significant confrontations between the strongest states of that time. The main events of the Crimean War took place in the Transcaucasus, the Balkans, in the Black Sea basin and partly in the White and Barents Seas. It all started in June 1853, when several Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan did not like this, and after several months of negotiations, he declared war on Russia.
From this moment, a three-year military confrontation began, called the Crimean War, the course of which we will briefly try to understand. The entire period of this conflict can be divided into two stages:
- October 1853 - April 1854 - Russian-Turkish confrontation.
- April 1854 - February 1856 - entry into the war by England, France and the Sardinian Kingdom on the side of the Ottoman Empire.
Initially, everything turned out favorably for the Russian troops, who won victories both at sea and on land. The most significant event was the battle in Sinop Bay, as a result of which the Turks lost a significant part of their fleet.
Second stage of the war
In the early spring of 1854, England and France joined the Ottoman Empire and also declared war on Russia. Russian troops were inferior to their new opponents both in the training of soldiers and in the quality of weapons, as a result of which they were forced to retreat when coalition ships entered the waters of the Black Sea. The main task for the Anglo-French formations was the capture of Sevastopol, where the main forces of the Black Sea Fleet were concentrated.
To this end, in September 1854, Allied ground formations landed in the western part of Crimea, and a battle ensued near the Alma River, which ended in defeat for the Russian army. Anglo-French troops captured Sevastopol, and after 11 months of resistance the city was surrendered.
Despite defeats in naval battles and in the Crimea, the Russian army performed well in Transcaucasia, where it was opposed by Ottoman troops. Having successfully repulsed the attacks of the Turks, she launched a rapid offensive and managed to push the enemy back to the Kars fortress.
Treaty of Paris
After three years of fierce fighting, both sides of the conflict did not want to continue the military confrontation and agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. As a result, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were enshrined in the Paris Peace Treaty, which the parties signed on March 18, 1856. According to it, the Russian Empire was deprived of part of Bessarabia. But a much more serious damage was that the waters of the Black Sea were now considered neutral for the duration of the treaty. This meant that Russia and the Ottoman Empire were prohibited from having their own Black Sea fleets, as well as from building fortresses on its shores. This greatly undermined the country's defensive capabilities, as well as its economy.
Consequences of the Crimean War
As a result of the three-year confrontation between European states and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, the latter was among the losers, which undermined its influence on the world stage and led to economic isolation. This forced the country's government to launch a number of reforms aimed at modernizing the army, as well as improving the lives of the entire population of the country. Thanks to the military reform, conscription was abolished, and military service was introduced instead. New models of military equipment were adopted into service with the army. After the uprisings broke out, serfdom was abolished. Changes also affected the education system, finance and courts.
Despite all the efforts made by the Russian Empire, the Crimean War ended in defeat for it; after briefly analyzing the course of its actions, one can judge that the cause of all the failures was poor training of troops and outdated weapons. After its completion, many reforms were introduced aimed at improving the fundamentals of life for the country's citizens. Results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Although they were unsatisfactory for Russia, they still gave the tsar the opportunity to realize past mistakes and prevent similar things in the future.
The Crimean War, called the Eastern War in the West (1853-1856), was a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. It had little impact on the external position of the Russian Empire, but significantly on its internal policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of the entire state administration, which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist powerCauses of the Crimean War
Objective
***
Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)
*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean
“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)
*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the southern Slavs
“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island may suit you, and I don’t see why it shouldn’t become an English possession” (conversation between Nicholas I and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
Subjective
*** Turkey's weakness
“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)
*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity
“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
***
Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front
“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)
*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers
“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)
*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":
It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits of the Catholic Church confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 in the so-called holy places, that is, in the churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox
*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n
“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands" (History of Diplomacy)
Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856
During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his chivalrous courtesy and royal grandeur, charmed with his cordial courtesy Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen of the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas’s aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria’s friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844
Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree
However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must defend the Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure that the Turks fulfill previous treaties with Russia, which were violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)
The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov
But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.
The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege
Peace terms
The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
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Russia's military-technical lag behind leading European powers
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Underdevelopment of communications
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Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army
“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army commissariat, then the regimental commissariat, and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, hungry horses are eating sawdust and shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is okay.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that Captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
“I can’t... the chain will break...” the quartermaster croaked with his last strength. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we had been there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”
- Poor troop control
“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. “At least he goes to the position, but Prince Menshikov didn’t remember at all that the war was going on.” He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. “He has one good quality,” the colonel added. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)
Results of the Crimean War
The Crimean War showed
Crimean War 1853 – 1856 - one of the largest events of the 19th century, marking a sharp turn in the history of Europe. The immediate cause of the Crimean War was the events surrounding Turkey, but its true causes were much more complex and deeper. They were rooted primarily in the struggle between liberal and conservative principles.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the undeniable triumph of conservative elements over the aggressive revolutionary ones ended at the end of the Napoleonic wars with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which established the political structure of Europe for a long time. Conservative-protective “System” Metternich"prevailed throughout the European continent and received its expression in the Holy Alliance, which initially embraced all the governments of continental Europe and represented, as it were, their mutual insurance against attempts to resume the bloody Jacobin terror anywhere. Attempts at new ("Southern Roman") revolutions made in Italy and Spain in the early 1820s were suppressed by decisions of the congresses of the Holy Alliance. However, the situation began to change after the French Revolution of 1830, which was successful and changed the internal order of France towards greater liberalism. The July coup of 1830 caused revolutionary events in Belgium and Poland. The system of the Congress of Vienna began to crackle. A split was brewing in Europe. The liberal governments of England and France began to unite against the conservative powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. Then an even more serious revolution broke out in 1848, which, however, was defeated in Italy and Germany. The Berlin and Viennese governments received moral support from St. Petersburg, and the uprising in Hungary was directly helped by the Russian army to suppress the Austrian Habsburgs. Shortly before the Crimean War, the conservative group of powers, led by the most powerful of them, Russia, seemed to be even more united, restoring their hegemony in Europe.
This forty-year hegemony (1815 - 1853) aroused hatred on the part of European liberals, which was directed with particular force against “backward,” “Asian” Russia as the main stronghold of the Holy Alliance. Meanwhile, the international situation brought to the fore events that helped unite the Western group of liberal powers and separated the eastern, conservative ones. These events caused complications in the East. The interests of England and France, dissimilar in many ways, converged on protecting Turkey from being absorbed by Russia. On the contrary, Austria could not be a sincere ally of Russia in this matter, because it, like the British and French, most of all feared the absorption of the Turkish East by the Russian empire. Thus, Russia found itself isolated. Although the main historical interest of the struggle was the task of eliminating the protective hegemony of Russia, which had towered over Europe for 40 years, the conservative monarchies left Russia alone and thus prepared the triumph of the liberal powers and liberal principles. In England and France, the war with the northern conservative colossus was popular. If it had been caused by a clash over some Western issue (Italian, Hungarian, Polish), it would have united the conservative powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. However, the eastern, Turkish question, on the contrary, separated them. It served as the external cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Crimean War 1853-1856. Map
The pretext for the Crimean War was the bickering over holy places in Palestine, which began in 1850 between the Orthodox clergy and the Catholic clergy, who were under the patronage of France. To resolve the issue, Emperor Nicholas I sent (1853) an extraordinary envoy to Constantinople, Prince Menshikov, who demanded that the Porte confirm the Russian protectorate over the entire Orthodox population of the Turkish Empire, established by previous treaties. The Ottomans were supported by England and France. After almost three months of negotiations, Menshikov received from the Sultan a decisive refusal to accept the note he presented and on May 9, 1853 he returned to Russia.
Then Emperor Nicholas, without declaring war, introduced the Russian army of Prince Gorchakov into the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia), “until Turkey satisfies the just demands of Russia” (manifesto of June 14, 1853). The conference of representatives of Russia, England, France, Austria and Prussia, which gathered in Vienna to resolve the causes of disagreement peacefully, did not achieve its goal. At the end of September, Turkey, under the threat of war, demanded that the Russians clear the principalities within two weeks. On October 8, 1853, the English and French fleets entered the Bosphorus, thereby violating the convention of 1841, which declared the Bosporus closed to military ships of all powers.
The war between the Russian im-pe-ri-ey and the koa-li-tsi-ey countries (Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, France, Osman-skaya im-pe -ria and Sar-din-ko-ro-lion-st-vo), caused by the collision-but-ve-ni-em of their in-te-re-sov in the basin-not Black -th m., on Kav-ka-ze and Bal-ka-nakh. Og-ra-ni-chen-nye military. the action was carried out in the same way on Bal-ti-ka, Bel-lom and the Pacific Ocean.
K ser. 19th century Great Britain and France have you cut Russia off from nearby markets and under your influence -the Osman Empire. Ross. right spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore the ut-ra-chen positions with direct pressure on the OS -man-sky im-per-ria. Great Britain and France are helping to re-establish the conflict, counting on the os-la beat Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus and other territories from it. Formal in-house for K. v. were there disputes between the right-to-glorious and some-lich. spirit-ho-ven-st-vom because of the Holy places in Pa-les-sti-ne, which are under the protection of Russia and France, but in fact it was about the establishment of a pre-ob-la-giving influence on the OS-lab-len-naya Os-man- Empire, which was hoping for help from the West. countries in maintaining state dominion in Balkans. In Feb. 1853 Extraordinary Envoy of the Emperor. No-bark I adm. A. S. Men-shi-kov demanded from Port-you to confirm the expectation of the pro-tek-ra-ta of Russia over all the rights of glory -mi in the Os-man Empire. Under-keep-li-vae-my Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France tour. pra-vi-tel-st-vo from-klo-ni-lo grew. but-that and gave-lo permission to enter the English-French. es-kad-ry in the Dar-da-nel-ly strait. In connection with this, Russia is ra-zo-ra-la di-plo-ma-tich. from the Ottoman Empire and on June 21 (July 3) sent troops into the Danube princes - Mol-da-viyu and Wa-la-hiyu. Sub-der-zhan-ny Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France, tour. sul-tan Ab-dul-Med-jid 27 Sep. (Oct. 9) you're growing up. troops from the principalities, and 4(16) Oct. announced a war with Russia on October 20. (1 Nov.) in turn, announced the war of the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of the war, the Danube princes were growing up. army (83 thousand people) under command. gene. from art. M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va (from 1854 - Field General I. F. Pas-ke-vi-cha). In Kav-ka-ze it means. part grew up troops were involved in the Caucasus War of 1817-64, and to cover the Russian tour. borders of the sfor-mi-ro-van 30-thousandth building (general-l. V. O. Be-but-tov). In Crimea, hand in hand. Men-shi-ko-va, na-know-no-go co-manager of the Crimean AR-mi-ey and the Black Sea Fleet, na-ho-di- elk only 19 thousand people. In zap. region for covering the Russian-Austrian borders and in the north of the pas deux a large contingent of troops (256 thousand people) was left, still approx. 500 thousand people wasp-ta-va-elk inside. regions of Russia.
They didn’t have any specific plans for waging a war against them. Ross. The government believed that one’s goals could be achieved de-mon-st-ra-tsi-ey. strength, that’s why after entering the Danube, the princes did not undertake any active actions -lo. This gave the Ottoman Empire the opportunity to complete its strategy. deployment of your army by the end of September. Basic power tour. troops (143 thousand people) under command. Omer-pa-shi (Austrian Lat-tas, who transferred to the Turkish service) were with-the-to-the-people on Du-nai- com theater of operations. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations of the Ana-to-liy army of Ab-di-pa-shi (approx. 100 thousand people). Despite the numerical superiority, the tour. co-man-do-wa-nie expected to enter into the war with-yuz-ni-kov, that’s why in the campaign of 1853 on Du-nai- com theater of operations military action-st-viya shi-ro-ko-go time-ma-ha not po-lu-chi-li. To the Caucasus. Military theater of operations the action began in October. 1853 out-of-west on-pas-de-ni-em and grab-that tour. howl-ska-mi grew. according to St. Nicholas. Ch. power tour. army under command. Ab-di-pa-shi (approx. 20 thousand people) is on-stu-pa-li on Alek-san-d-ro-pol (Gyum-ri), and the 18-thousandth building is Ali-pa-shi - to Akhal-tsikh. In the battles near Ba-yan-du-ra (near Alek-san-d-ro-po-lem) and near Akhal-tsi-kh the re-do-vye grew in rows. troops launched a tour. howl-skam and os-ta-no-vi-li their pro-movement. In the Bash-ka-dyk-lar-sky battle of 1853, there was thunder. power tour. army on Kav-ka-ze. Ross. Black Sea Fleet from the na-cha-la K. century. us-on-foot-but act-st-vo-val on the sea. com-mu-ni-ka-tsi-yah pro-tiv-ni-ka, block-ki-ro-val tour. fleet in ports. Ross. es-kad-ra under command. Vice Adm. P.S. Na-hi-mo-va 18(30) Nov. in the Si-nop battle of 1853, the tour was completely destroyed. es-kad-ru. This one grew up. the fleet won dominance on the Black Sea and lost the tour. troops on Kav-ka-ze support from the sea. At the same time, military. the weakness of the Osman Empire before the op-re-de-li-la entry into the war of Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and France , which on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854) brought the united allied fleet into the Black Sea. Pro-test of Russia against na-ru-she-niya between-zh-du-nar. the convention about the pro-li-you was rejected, growing up. government ra-zo-ra-lo di-plo-ma-tich. relations with these countries.
In the 1854 campaign on the Danube theater of operations, he grew up. co-man-do-va-nie pre-pri-nya-lo to try to up-re-dit with-yuz-ni-kov, destroy the tour. army and change the course of the war. Military the action began on March 11 (23) pere-re-right growing up. troops at one time in the areas of Brai-lo-va, Ga-la-tsa and Iz-mail-la, captured by Isak-chi, Tul-chi, Ma-chi-na , and then Gir-so-vo. The people of Bol-garia grew up with great greetings. voy-ska as os-vo-bo-di-te-ley from the tour. yoke. All in. In Greece, an anti-Turkish revolt flared up, one-on-the-far-neck on-the-station grew. the troops were present, but because of the unresolvedness of M.D. Gor-cha-ko-va. Only on May 4 (16), by order of the imp. No-barking I began to besiege Si-li-st-rii. Pro-vo-loch-ki with the beginning of the campaign to call Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii and France to formalize a military li-tich. co-union, develop a plan for joint actions and complete the preparation of ex-pedic. troops. 15-16(27-28). 3.1854 these countries declared war on Russia and Russian tourism. war-na per-re-ros-la in war-well Russia with koa-li-tsi-ey europe. states English-French fleet (34 line ships, 55 fri-ga-tov, mainly pa-rus-but-pa-ro-vye with vin-you-mov-ga-te-la -mi), transferred to active actions on the Black Sea, subjected Odessa and other coastal cities to fire ro-yes, blo-ki-ro-val grew. fleet (14 pa-rus-line ships and 6 fri-gates; 6 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ga-tov) in Se-va-sto-po-le. At the beginning of April. 1854 Austria together with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France you-mov-nu-la ul-ti-ma-tiv-nye tr -bo-va-niya, under Prussian control, grew up according to you. troops from Mol-da-via and Wa-la-hia. I grew up tortured. di-pl-ma-tov do-beat-xia so-gla-sia europ. countries did not have the right to withdraw their fleet from the Black Sea in exchange for accepting their conditions. By the end of August it was growing. ar-miya po-ki-nu-la for-my ter-ri-to-rii, which were ok-ku-pi-ro-va-ny av-st-rii- tsa-mi.
In ju-ne - ju-le ang-lo-fran-co-tour. ex-pedic. troops (62 thousand people, 134 left and 114 siege weapons) under command. French mar-sha-la A. Zh.L. Saint-Arno et Brit. gene. F.J. Rag-la-na met on Wednesday in Var-na, and on September 1-6 (13-18). you were in the Ev-pa-to-riy bay. Attempting to promote the movement against the same river. Al-ma (see Al-min battle of 1854) brought to the age of growth. army, which-paradise went to Se-va-sto-po-lyu, and then to the region of Bakh-chi-sa-paradise, os-ta-viv Se -va-sto-pol without the cover of ground troops. Troops from allied forces approached the city from the south. English-li-cha-not for-hva-ti-li Ba-lak-la-vu, but the French-tsu-zy - Ka-we-sho-wuy bay, where you were created -low bases for ensuring subsequent combat operations. In Se-va-sto-po-le 13(25) September. a siege was announced, the Seva-hundred-Polish defense began in 1854-55. Trying to co-man-do-va-niya to grab Se-va-sto-pol after the 9-day art. the shoot-la, on Oct. 5 (17), ended in failure. The fire grew. ba-ta-ray caused significant damage to the siege art-til-le-ria and co-slaves against-tiv-ka, which for-sta-vi-lo Rag-la- on and gen. F. Kan-ro-be-ra (behind-me-niv-she-go Saint-Ar-no) to stop the assault. Ross. military 13(25) Oct. before-trying to grab the uk-re-p-linen base English. troops in the Ba-lak-la-vy area. Chor-gun detachment (general-l. P.P. Li-p-ran-di) under the cover of the general-m. OP. ka-va-le-rii, one-at-a-time develop tak-tich. suc-infantry failed. The new, general-ny, assault on Se-va-sto-po-lya, na-zn-chen-ny so-yuz-ni-ka-mi on 6 (18) Nov., was torn down by the Inkerman battle in 1854, in which, despite the age, he grew up. troops, the enemy's nickname means. then, and, depending on the assault, went to the long-term wasp of the city.
To the Caucasus. Theater of operations of the Turks with a number of up to 120 thousand people. and in May 1854 they moved to the na-stu-p-le-nie on Alek-san-d-ro-pol-sky and Ku-ta-is-sky on-right-le-ni-yah pro- tive 40-thousand-no-go kor-pu-sa V. O. Be-bu-to-va. Ch. strength of the corps (18 thousand people) at this time from the invasion into the East. Georgia from a number of mountaineers under the leadership of Sha-mi-la. Despite this, I grew up. military, acting department. from-rya-da-mi, raz-gro-mi-li tu-rock on the river. Cho-rokh, in the Kyu-ryuk-Da-rin battle of 1854 and for-nya-li Baya-zet.
In the spring of 1854, military operations began on the Baltic Sea, where the English were right. and French es-kad-ry under command. vi-tse-ad-mi-ra-lov Ch. Ney-pi-ra and A.F. Par-se-val-De-she-na (11 wines and 15 pa-rus-nyh lines- ney-nyh co-workers, 32 pa-ro-ho-do-f-re-ga-ta and 7 pa-rus-nyh fre-ga-tov). Balt. the fleet consisted of 26 sailing ships, 25 frigates and ships, of which only 11 were pa-ro-you-mi. For the defense of bases from the sea, it grew. The seas are using mines for the first time. 4(16) Aug. against-no-ku managed to ov-la-det main. grew up uk-re-p-le-ni-em on the Aland Islands - Bo-mar-zun-dom. When you tried to help others, you failed. In the autumn of 1854, the joint-union co-slavery of the Baltic Sea. In the north in 1854 several times. English and French the slaves entered Beloye m. and tried to attack the So-lovets islands without success. In the Far East in August. 1854 English-French es-kad-ra pre-pri-nya-la tort-ku ov-la-children by Pe-tro-Pav-lov-skiy Port (see Pe-tro-pav-lov-ska ob-ro-ro- to 1854). One day, after enduring the same, the joint es-kad-ra left the shores of Kam-chat-ki. The combat operations in these theaters of operations had a second-rate meaning, the alliance pre- sed the target for-sta- Vit grew up co-man-do-va-nie to divert their strength from ch. te-at-ra - Crimea. In de-cab-re to the enemy Russia, English-lo-French. Austria was included in the coalition (see Vienna Union Treaty of 1854), once in the military. no participation in the de-st-vi-yah.
14(26).1.1855, at the request of France, the Sardinian co-state entered the war, on the right-hand side of the Crimea 15-thousandth building (gen. A. La Mar-mo-ra). Growing up in February. co-man-do-va-nie before-at-the-unsuccessful torture of ov-la-deal Ev-pa-to-ri-ey, after which I entered - on the throne of the imp. Alexander II removed from one hundred commands. Crimean Ar-mi-ey (128 thousand people, including 43 thousand people in Se-va-sto-po-le) A. S. Men-shi-ko-va and na- meant instead of M.D. Gor-cha-ko-va. However, after changing the management, I could no longer manage the affairs. During the spring and summer of 1855, the Union troops (175 thousand people) conducted 5 multi-precise artillery. about-fishing and pre-pri-nya-several. storm-mov Se-va-sto-po-la. In the re-zul-ta-those of the next of them, Aug. 27. (Sept. 8) was for the key position in the system of ob-ro-ny Se-va-sto-po-la - Ma-la- hov kur-gan. Ross. co-man-do-va-nie when deciding to leave the city and move to the north. shore of Se-va-sto-pol-skoy bay. The remaining co-slaves would have been for-the-p-lens. Os-lab-len-nye allied troops, having captured the south. part of the city, couldn't you continue to press on the st-p-le-nie.
On the Baltic Sea in 1855 act-st-vo-va-li English-lo-French. es-kad-ry (20 vin-to-vyh li-nyh co-workers, 32 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ga-ta and cor-ve-ta, 18 other courts ) under command. counter-ad-mi-ra-lov R. Dan-da-sa and Sh. Pe-no. After the digging of several cows, we grew up. mi-nah at Kron-stadt did not show any active nickname. His actions are mainly the og-ra-ni-chi-va-lis the block-ka-doy and the arrows at the be-re-zhya. At the end of July, he unsuccessfully tried to seize Gel-sing-fors (Hel-sin-ki) and the Svea fortress that covered him -borg. Towards the end of November English-French. es-kad-ry po-ki-nu-li Bal-tiyskoye metro. On Bel-lom metro. 6 ko-rab-lei so-yuz-ni-kov in July - September-Tyab-re or blockade actions, the effectiveness of which was not significant. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations in May began at the stage. forces Dept. Kavk. kor-pu-sa (gen. from inf. N. N. Murav-ev; 40 thousand people) in Er-zu-rum-sky on the right-hand side and the next one blah-ka-da 33-thousand-th round. gar-ni-zo-na in the fortress of Kars. You are a garden on the Black Sea coastline of Kav-ka-za tour. ex-pedic. corps-pu-sa Omer-pa-shi (45 thousand people) and his march from Su-hu-ma with the aim of de-blo-ka-dy Kar-sa us- didn't have any trouble. Li-shen-ny support-ki gar-ni-zon kre-po-sti 16 (28) Nov. ka-pi-tu-li-ro-val. Omer-pa-sha with os-tat-ka-mi raz-throm-len-no-go kor-pu-sa went to Su-hu-mu, from where in February. 1856 on ships eva-kui-ro-val-xia to Turkey. The road to Er-zu-rum turned out to be open, but the arrival of winter and difficulties with the supply of freedom I wasn't allowed to grow up. howl-skam pro-long-live on-stu-p-le-nie. By this time, no military. and eco-no-mich. perhaps the sides would have been practically used, military. the action ceased on all theaters of operations. After the death of imp. No-co-barking I re-re-go-vo-ry in Vienna, and on March 18 (30), 1856 the Peace of Paris of 1856 was signed, summing up the outcome of the Crimean War.
Po-ra-zhe-nie in K. century. it was obu-slov-le-but eco-no-mich. and military from the hundred-year-old Russia, a huge building behind the bu-ro-kra-ti-zi-ditch. ap-pa-rat state The administration was unable to ensure that the country was prepared for war, and errors grew. Di-pl-m-tii pri-ve-li to po-li-tich. isolation of Russia. The war was an important stage in the development of the military. lawsuit After her, the armies of most countries were based on cut-weapons, the Russian navy was replaced by pa-ro -you m. During the K. century. about-the-ru-lived the in-consistency of the so-ti-ki-co-lonn, the-lu-chi-di-development of the so-ti-ka shooter. chain and element-men-you in a nutshell. wars. Re-zul-ta-you K. v. obu-slo-vi-li pro-ve-de-nie eco-no-mich., social-ci-al-nyh and military. reforms in Russia. After all, I grew up. army during the war with St. 522 thousand people, two-rock - approx. 400 thousand people, French call - 95 thousand people, English-li-chan - 22 thousand people.
CRIMINAL WAR 1853-1856
Causes of the war and the balance of forces. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had its own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Isklessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a hard impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy escalated into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally with Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Failure of A.S. mission Menshikova was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of its envoy only aggravated the conflict situation. Thus, a seemingly private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, first of all, in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior to the rifled weapons of Western European armies. The artillery is also outdated. The Russian navy was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by steam-powered ships. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide the site of military operations with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, or human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
Progress of military operations. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of “armed neutrality.” Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was carried out with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. In the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was to capture Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and moved to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The fortress garrison showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, Lieutenant General of Artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855, the final assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the balance of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Development of agriculture.
Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology.
Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.
Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander were a wonderful beginning.”
Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. State activities of M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Alliance.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.
Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the “Union of Salvation” and the “Union of Prosperity”. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Eastern question. Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.
Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.
N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.
Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the 19th century.
Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.
Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.
Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of Three Emperors.
Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Education, 1996.
