home Audience 5 What cancer cells look like under a microscope: pictures and description. Blood cells. The structure of blood cells, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, Rh factor - what is it? Microscope - a smart gift for a child

What cancer cells look like under a microscope: pictures and description. Blood cells. The structure of blood cells, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, Rh factor - what is it? Microscope - a smart gift for a child

Since ancient times, human blood has been endowed with mystical properties. People made sacrifices to the gods with an indispensable rite of bloodletting. Sacred oaths were sealed with the touch of freshly cut wounds. The wooden idol “weeping” with blood was the last argument of the priests in an attempt to convince their fellow tribesmen of anything. The ancient Greeks considered blood to be the guardian of the properties of the human soul.

Modern science has penetrated into many mysteries of blood, but research continues to this day... Medicine, immunology, genogeography, biochemistry, genetics study the biophysical and chemical properties of blood as a whole. Today we know what they are human blood types. Optimal composition of human blood adhering to a healthy lifestyle. It was revealed that blood sugar a person changes depending on his physical and mental state. Scientists have found the answer to the question how much blood is in a person And what is the speed of blood flow? not out of idle curiosity, but for the purpose of diagnosing and treating cardiovascular and other diseases.

The microscope has long been an indispensable assistant to man in many areas. In the lens of the device you can see what is not visible to the naked eye. An interesting subject for research is blood. under the microscope you can see the main elements human blood composition: plasma and shaped elements.

First composition of human blood researched by the Italian doctor Marcello Malpighi. He mistook the shaped elements floating in the plasma for fat globules. Blood cells have more than once been called either balloons or animals, mistaking them for intelligent beings. The term "blood cells" or "blood balls" was introduced into scientific use by Anthony Leeuwenhoek. blood under the microscope is a kind of mirror of the state of the human body. One drop can be used to determine what is currently bothering a person. Hematology, or the science that studies blood, hematopoiesis and specific diseases, is currently experiencing a boom in its development. Thanks to the study of blood, new high-tech methods for diagnosing diseases and their treatment are being introduced into the practice of physicians.

You, too, can join the world of science with the help of Altami optical instruments. Histological slides for examination under a microscope, which include blood samples, can be prepared at home without special processing. To do this, wash and degrease the glass slides on which you place the drop of blood. With a momentary movement of another glass slide or spatula, smear the liquid in a thin layer. For home experiments, the use of special dyes is unnecessary. Air-dry the preparation in air until the gloss disappears and fix it on an object table, after placing a coverslip on top. The temporary biopreparation is usable for only a few hours, but they will be enough to unravel the mysteries of blood with our clue.

Incidentally, in order to see what is included in composition of human blood, it is not necessary to cut your finger at all. It is enough to use ready-made

So if you look at blood under a microscope, under high magnification, we will see that it contains many different cells. Today it is known that blood in the human body is a type of connective tissue. It consists of the liquid part of the plasma and the formed elements suspended in it: erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. Blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow. Interestingly, in a child, the entire bone marrow is red, while in an adult, blood is produced only in certain bones.

Pay attention to the pink flattened balls - erythrocytes. They carry molecules of hemoglobin protein, which gives red blood cells a delicate shade. With the help of protein, erythrocytes enrich every cell of the human body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. If a person drinks a little water, then the red blood cells stick together and do not tolerate hemoglobin. In certain diseases, an insufficient number of red blood cells is produced, which leads to oxygen starvation of tissues. If the blood is infected with a fungus, these blood cells will look like gears or curved hooks.

It is well known that there are different human blood types and Rh factor, positive or negative. It is erythrocytes that make it possible to classify human blood as a particular group and Rh affiliation. The revealed various reactions between the erythrocytes of one person and the blood plasma of another made it possible to systematize the blood by groups and rhesus. The development of a blood compatibility table is on a par with such a great discovery as Mendeleev's periodic table of chemical elements.

Today blood type determined in the first days of a newborn's life. Like fingerprints human blood types remain unchanged throughout life. Back in 1900 the world did not know what blood groups. Human, who needed a blood transfusion, was subjected to the procedure, not realizing that his blood might be incompatible with the donor's blood. Austrian immunologist, Nobel laureate Karl Landsteiner laid the foundation for the classification of liquid connective tissue and discovered the Rhesus system. The blood compatibility table acquired its final form thanks to the research of the Czech doctor Jakob Jansky.

Blood leukocytes are represented by several types of cells. Neutrophils or granulocytes are cells with a nucleus of several parts inside. Small grains are scattered around large cells. Lymphocytes have a smaller round nucleus, but it occupies almost the entire cell. The bean-shaped nucleus is characteristic of monocytes.

Leukocytes protect us from infections and diseases, including such formidable ones as cancer. At the same time, the functions of warrior cells are strictly delimited. If T-lymphocytes recognize and remember what different microbes look like, then B-lymphocytes produce antibodies against them. Neutrophils "devour" foreign substances for the body. In the struggle for human health, both microbes and lymphocytes die. Increased leukocytes indicate the presence of an inflammatory process in the body.

The platelets, or platelets, are responsible for creating tight blood clots that stop minor bleeding. Platelets do not have a cell nucleus and are clusters of small granular cells with a rough membrane. As a rule, platelets "walk in formation", in an amount of 3 to 10 pieces.

The liquid part of the blood is called plasma. Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets, together with plasma, constitute an important component of the blood system - peripheral blood. You are already tormented by the question: how much blood is in a person? Then you will be interested to know that the total amount of blood in an adult body is 6-8% of body weight, and in the body of a child - 8-9%. Now you can calculate yourself how much blood is in a person knowing its weight.

In addition to blood cells, plasma contains proteins, minerals in the form of ions. Under the lens of the Altami microscope, other inclusions are also visible, harmful, which should not be in the blood of a healthy person. So, uric acid salts are presented in the form of crystals resembling glass fragments. Crystals mechanically damage blood cells and peel off the film from the walls of blood vessels. Cholesterol looks like flakes that settle on the walls of a blood vessel and gradually narrow its lumen. The presence of bacteria and fungi of various irregular forms indicates serious disorders of the human immune system.

You can find irregularly shaped crystalloids in the blood - this is sugar, the excess of which leads to metabolic disorders. Blood sugar human - the most important indicator in the clinical analysis of blood. You can avoid diseases such as diabetes mellitus, some diseases of the central nervous system, hypertension, atherosclerosis and others if you take a blood test for glucose once a year. Blood sugar person, increased or decreased, directly indicates a predisposition to a particular disease.

Thanks to the most exciting activity - the study of the drop blood under a microscope Altami - you have made a journey into the world of hematology: you have learned about the composition of blood and the important role it plays in the human body.

They are small and can only be seen under a microscope.

All blood cells are divided into red and white. The first are erythrocytes, which make up most of all cells, the second are leukocytes.

Platelets are also considered to be blood cells. These small platelets are not actually complete cells. They are small fragments separated from large cells - megakaryocytes.

red blood cells

Erythrocytes are called red blood cells. This is the largest group of cells. They carry oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and take part in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

The place of formation of red blood cells is the red bone marrow. They live 120 days and are destroyed in the spleen and liver.

They are formed from precursor cells - erythroblasts, which, before turning into an erythrocyte, go through different stages of development and divide several times. Thus, up to 64 red blood cells are formed from an erythroblast.

Erythrocytes are devoid of a nucleus and in shape resemble a disc concave on both sides, the average diameter of which is about 7-7.5 microns, and the thickness along the edges is 2.5 microns. This shape helps to increase the plasticity required for passage through small vessels and the surface area for diffusion of gases. Old red blood cells lose their plasticity, which is why they linger in the small vessels of the spleen and are destroyed there.

Most of the erythrocytes (up to 80%) have a biconcave spherical shape. The remaining 20% may have a different one: oval, cup-shaped, simple spherical, crescent-shaped, etc. Violation of the shape is associated with various diseases (anemia, vitamin B 12 deficiency, folic acid, iron, etc.).

Most of the cytoplasm of the erythrocyte is occupied by hemoglobin, consisting of protein and heme iron, which gives the blood a red color. The non-protein part consists of four heme molecules with an Fe atom in each. It is thanks to hemoglobin that the erythrocyte is able to carry oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. In the lungs, an iron atom binds to an oxygen molecule, hemoglobin is converted to oxyhemoglobin, which gives the blood a scarlet color. In tissues, hemoglobin gives off oxygen and attaches carbon dioxide, turning into carbohemoglobin, as a result, the blood becomes dark. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is separated from hemoglobin and excreted by the lungs to the outside, and the incoming oxygen again binds to iron.

In addition to hemoglobin, the cytoplasm of the erythrocyte contains various enzymes (phosphatase, cholinesterases, carbonic anhydrase, etc.).

The erythrocyte membrane has a fairly simple structure compared to the membranes of other cells. It is an elastic thin mesh, which ensures rapid gas exchange.

In the blood of a healthy person, there may be small amounts of immature red blood cells called reticulocytes. Their number increases with significant blood loss, when replacement of red cells is required and the bone marrow does not have time to produce them, therefore it releases immature ones, which, nevertheless, are able to perform the functions of red blood cells for transporting oxygen.

Leukocytes

Leukocytes are white blood cells whose main task is to protect the body from internal and external enemies.

They are usually divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. The first group is granular cells: neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils. The second group does not have granules in the cytoplasm, it includes lymphocytes and monocytes.

Neutrophils

This is the most numerous group of leukocytes - up to 70% of the total number of white cells. Neutrophils got their name due to the fact that their granules are stained with dyes with a neutral reaction. Its granularity is fine, the granules have a purple-brownish tint.

The main task of neutrophils is phagocytosis, which consists in capturing pathogenic microbes and tissue decay products and destroying them inside the cell with the help of lysosomal enzymes located in granules. These granulocytes fight mainly bacteria and fungi and, to a lesser extent, viruses. Pus consists of neutrophils and their residues. Lysosomal enzymes are released during the breakdown of neutrophils and soften nearby tissues, thus forming a purulent focus.

A neutrophil is a round-shaped nuclear cell, reaching a diameter of 10 microns. The core may be rod-shaped or consist of several segments (from three to five) connected by strands. An increase in the number of segments (up to 8-12 or more) indicates pathology. Thus, neutrophils can be stab or segmented. The first are young cells, the second are mature. Cells with a segmented nucleus make up to 65% of all leukocytes, stab cells in the blood of a healthy person - no more than 5%.

In the cytoplasm there are about 250 varieties of granules containing substances due to which the neutrophil performs its functions. These are protein molecules that affect metabolic processes (enzymes), regulatory molecules that control the work of neutrophils, substances that destroy bacteria and other harmful agents.

These granulocytes are formed in the bone marrow from neutrophilic myeloblasts. A mature cell stays in the brain for 5 days, then enters the bloodstream and lives here for up to 10 hours. From the vascular bed, neutrophils enter the tissues, where they stay for two or three days, then they enter the liver and spleen, where they are destroyed.

Basophils

There are very few of these cells in the blood - no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. They have a rounded shape and a segmented or rod-shaped nucleus. Their diameter reaches 7-11 microns. Inside the cytoplasm are dark purple granules of various sizes. The name was given due to the fact that their granules are stained with dyes with an alkaline, or basic (basic) reaction. Basophil granules contain enzymes and other substances involved in the development of inflammation.

Their main function is the release of histamine and heparin and participation in the formation of inflammatory and allergic reactions, including the immediate type (anaphylactic shock). In addition, they can reduce blood clotting.

Formed in the bone marrow from basophilic myeloblasts. After maturation, they enter the blood, where they stay for about two days, then go into the tissues. What happens next is still unknown.

Eosinophils

These granulocytes make up approximately 2-5% of the total white cells. Their granules are stained with an acidic dye - eosin.

They have a rounded shape and a weakly colored core, consisting of segments of the same size (usually two, less often three). In diameter, eosinophils reach µm. Their cytoplasm stains pale blue and is almost invisible among a large number of large round yellow-red granules.

These cells are formed in the bone marrow, their precursors are eosinophilic myeloblasts. Their granules contain enzymes, proteins and phospholipids. A mature eosinophil lives in the bone marrow for several days, after entering the blood it stays in it for up to 8 hours, then it moves to tissues that have contact with the external environment (mucous membranes).

These are round cells with a large nucleus that occupies most of the cytoplasm. Their diameter is 7 to 10 microns. The kernel is round, oval or bean-shaped, has a rough structure. It consists of lumps of oxychromatin and basiromatin, resembling lumps. The nucleus may be dark purple or light purple, sometimes there are light blotches in the form of nucleoli. The cytoplasm is stained light blue, around the nucleus it is lighter. In some lymphocytes, the cytoplasm has an azurophilic granularity that turns red when stained.

Two types of mature lymphocytes circulate in the blood:

Narrow plasma. They have a rough, dark purple nucleus and a narrow blue-rimmed cytoplasm.
Wide plasma. In this case, the kernel has a paler color and a bean-shaped shape. The rim of the cytoplasm is quite wide, gray-blue in color, with rare ausurophilic granules.

Of the atypical lymphocytes in the blood, one can detect:

Small cells with barely visible cytoplasm and pycnotic nucleus.
Cells with vacuoles in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
Cells with lobulated, kidney-shaped, notched nuclei.
Naked kernels.

Lymphocytes are formed in the bone marrow from lymphoblasts and in the process of maturation they go through several stages of division. Its full maturation occurs in the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen. Lymphocytes are immune cells that provide immune responses. There are T-lymphocytes (80% of the total) and B-lymphocytes (20%). The first passed maturation in the thymus, the second - in the spleen and lymph nodes. B-lymphocytes are larger in size than T-lymphocytes. The life span of these leukocytes is up to 90 days. Blood for them is a transport medium through which they enter the tissues where their help is required.

The actions of T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes are different, although both are involved in the formation of immune responses.

The former are engaged in the destruction of harmful agents, usually viruses, by phagocytosis. The immune reactions in which they participate are non-specific resistance, since the actions of T-lymphocytes are the same for all harmful agents.

According to the actions performed, T-lymphocytes are divided into three types:

T-helpers. Their main task is to help B-lymphocytes, but in some cases they can act as killers.
T-killers. They destroy harmful agents: foreign, cancerous and mutated cells, infectious agents.
T-suppressors. They inhibit or block too active reactions of B-lymphocytes.

B-lymphocytes act differently: against pathogens, they produce antibodies - immunoglobulins. This happens as follows: in response to the actions of harmful agents, they interact with monocytes and T-lymphocytes and turn into plasma cells that produce antibodies that recognize the corresponding antigens and bind them. For each type of microbes, these proteins are specific and are able to destroy only a certain type, so the resistance that these lymphocytes form is specific, and it is directed mainly against bacteria.

These cells provide the body's resistance to certain harmful microorganisms, which is commonly called immunity. That is, having met with a harmful agent, B-lymphocytes create memory cells that form this resistance. The same thing - the formation of memory cells - is achieved by vaccinations against infectious diseases. In this case, a weak microbe is introduced so that the person can easily endure the disease, and as a result, memory cells are formed. They can remain for life or for a certain period, after which the vaccination is required to be repeated.

Monocytes

Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells. Their number is from 2 to 9% of all white blood cells. Their diameter reaches 20 microns. The monocyte nucleus is large, occupies almost the entire cytoplasm, can be round, bean-shaped, have the shape of a mushroom, a butterfly. When stained, it becomes red-violet. The cytoplasm is smoky, bluish-smoky, rarely blue. It usually has an azurophilic fine grain. It may contain vacuoles (voids), pigment grains, phagocytosed cells.

Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow from monoblasts. After maturation, they immediately appear in the blood and stay there for up to 4 days. Some of these leukocytes die, some move to tissues, where they mature and turn into macrophages. These are the largest cells with a large round or oval nucleus, blue cytoplasm and a large number of vacuoles, which makes them appear foamy. The life span of macrophages is several months. They can constantly be in one place (resident cells) or move (wandering).

Monocytes form regulatory molecules and enzymes. They are able to form an inflammatory reaction, but they can also slow it down. In addition, they are involved in the process of wound healing, helping to speed it up, contribute to the restoration of nerve fibers and bone tissue. Their main function is phagocytosis. Monocytes destroy harmful bacteria and inhibit the reproduction of viruses. They are able to follow commands but cannot distinguish between specific antigens.

platelets

These blood cells are small non-nucleated plates and may be round or oval in shape. During activation, when they are at the damaged vessel wall, they form outgrowths, so they look like stars. Platelets contain microtubules, mitochondria, ribosomes, specific granules containing substances necessary for blood clotting. These cells are equipped with a three-layer membrane.

Platelets are produced in the bone marrow, but in a completely different way than other cells. Platelets are formed from the largest brain cells - megakaryocytes, which, in turn, were formed from megakaryoblasts. Megakaryocytes have a very large cytoplasm. After cell maturation, membranes appear in it, dividing it into fragments, which begin to separate, and thus platelets appear. They leave the bone marrow into the blood, stay in it for 8-10 days, then die in the spleen, lungs, and liver.

Blood platelets can have different sizes:

the smallest are microforms, their diameter does not exceed 1.5 microns;
normoforms reach 2-4 microns;
macroforms - 5 µm;
megaloforms - 6-10 microns.

Platelets perform a very important function - they are involved in the formation of a blood clot, which closes the damage in the vessel, thereby preventing blood from flowing out. In addition, they maintain the integrity of the vessel wall, contribute to its fastest recovery after damage. When bleeding begins, platelets stick to the edge of the lesion until the hole is completely closed. Adhering plates begin to break down and release enzymes that act on blood plasma. As a result, insoluble fibrin strands are formed, tightly covering the injury site.

Conclusion

Blood cells have a complex structure, and each type performs a specific job: from transporting gases and substances to producing antibodies against foreign microorganisms. Their properties and functions are not fully understood to date. For normal human life, a certain amount of each type of cell is necessary. According to their quantitative and qualitative changes, physicians have the opportunity to suspect the development of pathologies. The composition of the blood is the first thing that the doctor studies when the patient is contacted.

name the blood cells

Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are the most numerous of the formed elements. Mature erythrocytes do not contain a nucleus and are shaped like biconcave discs. They circulate for 120 days and are destroyed in the liver and spleen. Red blood cells contain an iron-containing protein - hemoglobin, which provides the main function of red blood cells - the transport of gases, primarily oxygen. Hemoglobin is what gives blood its red color. In the lungs, hemoglobin binds oxygen, turning into oxyhemoglobin, it has a light red color. In the tissues, oxygen is released from the bond, hemoglobin is formed again, and the blood darkens. In addition to oxygen, hemoglobin in the form of carbohemoglobin also carries a small amount of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Platelets (platelets) are fragments of the cytoplasm of the giant cells of the bone marrow of megakaryocytes limited by the cell membrane. Together with blood plasma proteins (for example, fibrinogen), they provide clotting of blood flowing from a damaged vessel, leading to a stop in bleeding and thereby protecting the body from life-threatening blood loss.

White blood cells (leukocytes) are part of the body's immune system. All of them are capable of going beyond the bloodstream into the tissue. The main function of leukocytes is protection. They participate in immune responses, releasing T-cells that recognize viruses and all kinds of harmful substances, B-cells that produce antibodies, macrophages that destroy these substances. Normally, there are much fewer leukocytes in the blood than other formed elements.

BLOOD

Blood is a viscous red liquid that flows through the circulatory system: it consists of a special substance - plasma, which carries various types of formed blood elements and many other substances throughout the body.

BLOOD FUNCTIONS:

Supply oxygen and nutrients to the entire body.

Transfer metabolic products and toxic substances to the organs responsible for their neutralization.

Transfer hormones produced by the endocrine glands to the tissues for which they are intended.

Take part in thermoregulation of the body.

Interact with the immune system.

MAIN BLOOD COMPONENTS:

blood plasma. It is a fluid, 90% water, which carries all the elements present in the blood through the cardiovascular system: in addition to carrying blood cells, it also supplies the organs with nutrients, minerals, vitamins, hormones and other products involved in biological processes, and carries away metabolic products. Some of these substances are themselves freely transported by the pasma, but many of them are insoluble and are transported only together with the proteins to which they are attached, and are separated only in the corresponding organ.

blood cells. Looking at the composition of blood, you will see three types of blood cells: red blood cells, the same color as blood, the main elements that give it a red color; white blood cells responsible for many functions; and platelets, the smallest blood cells.

RED BLOOD CELLS

Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes or red platelets, are fairly large blood cells. They are shaped like a biconcave disc and about 7.5 µm in diameter, they are not really cells as such, since they lack a nucleus; red blood cells live for about 120 days. Erythrocytes contain hemoglobin - a pigment consisting of iron, due to which the blood has a red color; it is hemoglobin that is responsible for the main function of the blood - the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and the metabolic product - carbon dioxide - from the tissues to the lungs.

Red blood cells under a microscope.

If you put all the red blood cells of an adult in a row, you get more than two trillion cells (4.5 million per mm3 times 5 liters of blood), they can be placed 5.3 times around the equator.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

White blood cells, also called leukocytes, play an important role in the immune system, which protects the body from infections. There are several types of white blood cells; they all have a nucleus, including some multinucleated leukocytes, and are characterized by bizarre segmented nuclei that are visible under a microscope, so leukocytes are divided into two groups: polynuclear and mononuclear.

Polynuclear leukocytes are also called granulocytes, since under a microscope you can see several granules in them, which contain substances necessary to perform certain functions. There are three main types of granulocytes:

Neutrophils that absorb (phagocytize) and process pathogenic bacteria;

Basophils, which secrete a special secret during allergic reactions.

Let us dwell in more detail on each of the three types of granulocytes. You can consider granulocytes and cells, the descriptions of which will follow later in the article, in Scheme 1 below.

Scheme 1. Blood cells: white and red blood cells, platelets.

Neutrophilic granulocytes (Gy/n) are mobile spherical cells with a diameter of 10-12 microns. The nucleus is segmented, the segments are connected by thin heterochromatic bridges. In women, a small, elongated process called the drumstick (Barr's body) may be visible; it corresponds to the inactive long arm of one of the two X chromosomes. On the concave surface of the nucleus is a large Golgi complex; other organelles are less developed. Characteristic of this group of leukocytes is the presence of cell granules. Azurophilic, or primary, granules (AG) are considered as primary lysosomes from the moment when they already contain acid phosphatase, aryleulfatase, B-galactosidase, B-glucuronidase, 5-nucleotidase d-aminooxidase, and peroxidase. Specific secondary, or neutrophilic, granules (NG) contain the bactericidal substances lysozyme and phagocytin, as well as the enzyme alkaline phosphatase. Neutrophil granulocytes are microphages, i.e. they absorb small particles such as bacteria, viruses, small parts of collapsing cells. These particles enter the cell body by capturing them by short cell processes, and then are destroyed in phagolysosomes, into which azurophilic and specific granules release their contents. The life cycle of neutrophilic granulocytes is about 8 days.

Eosinophilic granulocytes (Gy/e) are cells reaching 12 µm in diameter. The nucleus is bipartite, the Golgi complex is located near the concave surface of the nucleus. Cellular organelles are well developed. In addition to azurophilic granules (AG), the cytoplasm includes eosinophilic granules (EG). They have an elliptical shape and consist of a fine-grained osmiophilic matrix and single or multiple dense lamellar crystalloids (Cr). The lysosomal enzymes lactoferrin and myeloperoxidase are concentrated in the matrix, while the major major protein, toxic to some helminths, is located in the crystalloids.

Basophilic granulocytes (Gr/b) have a diameter of about 10-12 microns. The nucleus is reniform or divided into two segments. Cellular organelles are poorly developed. The cytoplasm includes small rare peroxidase-positive lysosomes, which correspond to azurophilic granules (AG), and large basophilic granules (BG). The latter contain histamine, heparin and leukotrienes. Histamine is a vasodilating factor, heparin acts as an anticoagulant (a substance that inhibits the activity of the blood coagulation system and prevents the formation of blood clots), and leukotrienes cause bronchial constriction. Eosinophilic chemotactic factor is also present in the granules, it stimulates the accumulation of eosinophilic granules at the sites of allergic reactions. Under the influence of substances that cause the release of histamine or IgE, degranulation of basophils can occur in most allergic and inflammatory reactions. In this regard, some authors believe that basophilic granulocytes are identical to mast cells of connective tissues, although the latter do not have peroxidase-positive granules.

There are two types of mononuclear leukocytes:

Monocytes that phagocytize bacteria, detritus and other harmful elements;

Lymphocytes that produce antibodies (B-lymphocytes) and attack aggressive substances (T-lymphocytes).

Monocytes (Mts) are the largest of all blood cells, about 17-20 microns in size. A large kidney-shaped eccentric nucleus with 2-3 nucleoli is located in the bulk cytoplasm of the cell. The Golgi complex is localized near the concave surface of the nucleus. Cellular organelles are poorly developed. Azurophilic granules (AG), i.e., lysosomes, are scattered within the cytoplasm.

Monocytes are highly mobile cells with high phagocytic activity. From the moment they take in large particles such as whole cells or large parts of decayed cells, they are called macrophages. Monocytes regularly leave the bloodstream and enter the connective tissue. The surface of monocytes can be both smooth and containing, depending on the cellular activity, pseudopodia, filopodia, microvilli. Monocytes are involved in immunological reactions: they are involved in the processing of absorbed antigens, the activation of T-lymphocytes, the synthesis of interleukin and the production of interferon. The life span of monocytes is 60-90 days.

White blood cells, in addition to monocytes, exist as two functionally distinct classes, called T- and B-lymphocytes, which cannot be distinguished morphologically based on conventional histological methods of examination. From a morphological point of view, young and mature lymphocytes are distinguished. Large young B- and T-lymphocytes (CL) µm in size contain, in addition to the round nucleus, several cell organelles, among which there are small azurophilic granules (AG) located in a relatively wide cytoplasmic rim. Large lymphocytes are considered as a class of so-called natural killers (killer cells).

Mature B- and T-lymphocytes (L) with a diameter of 8-9 μm have a massive spherical nucleus surrounded by a thin rim of the cytoplasm, in which rare organelles can be observed, including azurophilic granules (AG). The surface of lymphocytes may be smooth or dotted with many microvilli (Mv). Lymphocytes are amoeboid cells that freely migrate through the epithelium of blood capillaries from the blood and penetrate into the connective tissue. Depending on the type of lymphocytes, their life expectancy varies from several days to several years (memory cells).

PLATELETS

Platelets are corpuscular elements that are the smallest particles of blood. Platelets are incomplete cells, their life cycle is only up to 10 days. Platelets are concentrated in places of bleeding and take part in blood clotting.

Platelets (T) are spindle-shaped or disc-shaped biconvex fragments of the cytoplasm of a megakaryocyte with a diameter of about 3-5 microns. Platelets have few organelles and two types of granules: a-granules (a), containing several lysosomal enzymes, thromboplastin, fibrinogen, and dense granules (PG), which have a highly condensed interior containing adenosine diphosphate, calcium ions, and several types of serotonin.

Platelets under an electron microscope.

LEUKOCYTES - WHITE BLOOD CELLS.

Leukemia, leukemia, leukocytosis - symptoms and treatment.

Blood is the only moving medium of a living organism. It washes all our tissues and organs, delivers them oxygen, nutrients, enzymes, carries away harmful metabolic products, and protects us from pathogenic microbes. All these various complex physiological functions are carried out with the help of blood cells.

1 - basophilic leukocyte

2 - segmented leukocyte

3 - stab leukocyte

4 - small cell lymphocyte

5 - eosophilic leukocyte

9 - multicellular lymphocyte

Bone marrow cells develop into neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils.

Neutrophils destroy microbes that have entered the body. With the help of prolegs, neutrophils capture pathogens and digest them. Basophils and eosinophils also take part in the fight against microbes.

Lymphocytes are formed in the lymph nodes and in the spleen. The largest of the white blood cells, monocytes, develop in the spleen.

The main role of lymphocytes and monocytes in the blood is to eliminate the remnants of dead white blood cells and microorganisms. These cells are a kind of "orderlies" that clear the battlefield.

More about leukemia (leukemia, leukemia)

Leukemia (leukemia, leukemia) is a tumor disease of the hematopoietic organs, in which immature cells grow in the hematopoietic tissue and other organs. The causes of leukemia can be radiation exposure, exposure to leukemia chemicals, as well as sudden leukemia, the causes of which are not fully understood.

Forms of leukemia (leukemia, leukemia) are leukemic (with a significant number of pathological leukocytes in the blood (tens and hundreds of thousands instead of normal thousand) in a cubic millimeter of blood, subleukemic (up to 25 thousand leukocytes in the blood), leukopenic (the number is normal or reduced, but in composition contains diseased leukocytes) and aleukemic.

Acute leukemia occurs and proceeds quickly, the cessation of hematopoiesis is pronounced, and the cells do not mature - there are immature cells - blasts in the blood, and the number of mature leukocytes is small, there are no transitional forms. Acute leukemia is characterized by bleeding, ulcers and areas of death in some organs, pronounced anemia. If left untreated, acute leukemia can lead to rapid death.

The most common form of chronic leukemia is chronic myelosis (depending on the disease of the part of the hematopoietic system, there are also lymphocytic leukemias (lymphadenosis), erythromyelosis, etc.), while the elements of hematopoiesis grow and many granular leukocytes are observed in the blood. Chronic forms of leukemia proceed for a long time, lymph nodes, liver and spleen increase. The number of mature leukocytes is abnormally high; during exacerbations, immature forms - blasts - are observed. The functions of the organs and systems of the body are disrupted, tumors and bleeding occur, and if left untreated, death occurs.

So, leukemia (leukemia, leukemia) is a disease of “white” blood, i.e. leukocytes, they do not mature and are not able to perform their functions of protecting the body. Granulocytes do not destroy microbes and viruses, lymphocytes do not remove them from the body (see blood test).

Treatment of leukemia (leukemia, leukemia)

The main efforts in the treatment of leukemia are aimed at stopping the reproduction of non-maturing leukocytes (blasts) and destroying them (even a few blasts can cause an outbreak of the disease).

The reproduction of immature leukocytes is suppressed by special preparations, including hormonal preparations that reduce the number of leukocytes, as well as through irradiation. With both methods, healthy cells are also affected, and the body can hardly tolerate chemotherapy and radiation therapy. A radical method for repeated remissions is bone marrow transplantation, success is achieved in more than half of the cases.

A new drug for the treatment of leukemia (STI-571 or Glivec or Gleevec - different names for the drug) gives hope to many patients with the first sadia of chronic myelogenous leukemia - more than 90% achieved remission within 6 months of treatment with STI-571 or Glivec. The abnormal protein produced by the altered chromosome leads to an abnormal increase in white blood cells, and STI-571 or Glivec blocks the signal that releases the protein and prevents the formation and growth of cancer cells. STI-571 or Glivec or Gleevec is a new step towards the treatment of cancer.

Procedures and drugs for the treatment of leukemia

To cure leukemia, you need to get rid of blasts, and under this condition, normal cells will continue their activity. Medicines for leukemia that prevent cell division and are called cytotoxic drugs. Irradiation is another way to prevent cell division. But both of these methods are indiscriminate - they also prevent the division of normal cells (side effect), and therefore such treatment is difficult to tolerate.

In treatment, it is important to monitor side effects and establish a dosage at which leukemic cells divide minimally and normal cells can still multiply. Therefore, during treatment, urine, blood, bone marrow and cerebrospinal fluid are continuously examined. When an undesirable level of side effects is reached, a break in treatment is prescribed.

Side effects arise from a lack of normal leukocytes and other blood components, the body cannot overcome various inflammatory infections, therefore, appropriate anti-inflammatory drugs are prescribed. Remedies for vomiting caused by cytostatic drugs are also prescribed. With a shortage of blood cells, a blood transfusion is performed.

Cytostatic drugs penetrate relatively poorly into some areas around the brain and spinal cord, and to destroy the accumulated blasts there, a lumbar puncture is performed, during which the drug is injected directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. The puncture is done several times. Methotrexate or alexan is injected into the blood, they also penetrate into the cerebrospinal fluid. For the assimilation of methotrexate, leucovorin is prescribed. It is also possible to use irradiation of the warhead in additional doses.

With intensive treatment, the white blood cell count drops, open sores can form in the mouth, and therefore it must be rinsed frequently to prevent infection with special fluids.

After an intensive stage of treatment in the clinic, a long one begins - the state of health improves, only pills are taken every day, once a week you need to come to the clinic and be examined. Thus, it is checked whether there are still blasts in the body that escaped the action of therapeutic drugs during the period of intensive therapy. With repeated exacerbation of leukemia, more intensive treatment is needed to go into remission. Other drugs are used, and bone marrow transplantation is also resorted to.

About procedures.

To study the bone marrow, a puncture is performed - the selection of bone marrow with a special puncture needle - the bone is pierced and a sample of the bone marrow is taken, usually from the upper edge of the pelvic bone. An anesthetic injection is given first.

A lumbar puncture (lumbar puncture) is done to collect cerebrospinal fluid or administer cytotoxic drugs. The procedure is performed sitting or lying down, the back should be fully bent. After anesthesia, a puncture needle is inserted and cerebrospinal fluid is taken.

The irradiation procedure is imperceptible, the person does not feel the action of the irradiating rays.

Blood transfusion - usually by drip. Usually pour what is missing. With a lack of erythrocytes, a concentrate of erythrocytes will be transfused; with a lack of white cells, a concentrate of granulocytes will be transfused.

Medicines to reduce leukocyte blasts.

Prednisolone is a hormonal agent, usually taken in tablets. Side effect is weight gain.

Vincristine (oncovin). Delays cell division. Side effect - constipation.

Asparginase (krasnitin), administered by drip, prevents the growth and reproduction of blasts.

It is hard to bear for many.

Daunorubicin and adriamycin are administered intravenously.

Cyclophosphamide (endoxan) is administered by drip. Uromitexan is administered to protect the bladder from its effects.

Antimetabolites are substances similar to those necessary for cell growth (food), but with the introduced changes, from which blasts die. These are cytosar, alexan, purinotel, methotrexate.

Bone marrow transplantation is a difficult procedure for the donor - many punctures are needed to collect bone marrow. The recipient is first completely emptied of the bone marrow with cytostatics and radiation, and then fresh bone marrow cells are injected through a conventional dropper.

Human blood cells - functions where they are formed and destroyed

Blood is the most important system in the human body, performing many different functions. Blood is a transport system through which vital substances are transferred to the organs and waste substances, decay products and other elements that are to be eliminated from the body are removed from the cells. The blood also circulates substances and cells that provide protection for the body as a whole.

Blood consists of cells and a liquid part - serum, consisting of proteins, fats, sugars and trace elements.

There are three main types of cells in the blood:

Erythrocytes - cells that transport oxygen to tissues

Erythrocytes are called highly specialized cells that do not have a nucleus (lost during maturation). Most of the cells are represented by biconcave discs, the average diameter of which is 7 microns, and the peripheral thickness is 2-2.5 microns. There are also spherical and domed erythrocytes.

Due to the shape, the surface of the cell is greatly enlarged for gaseous diffusion. Also, this shape helps to increase the plasticity of the erythrocyte, due to which it is deformed and moves freely through the capillaries.

Human erythrocytes and leukocytes

In pathological and old cells, plasticity is very low, and therefore they are retained and destroyed in the capillaries of the reticular tissue of the spleen.

The erythrocyte membrane and non-nuclear cells provide the main function of erythrocytes - the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The membrane is absolutely impermeable to cations (except potassium) and highly permeable to anions. The membrane is 50% composed of proteins that determine the belonging of the blood to a group and provide a negative charge.

Erythrocytes differ among themselves in:

Video: Red blood cells

Erythrocytes are the most numerous cells in human blood.

Erythrocytes are classified according to the degree of maturity into groups that have their own distinctive features.

In the peripheral blood, both mature and young and old cells are found. Young erythrocytes, in which there are remnants of nuclei, are called reticulocytes.

The number of young erythrocytes in the blood should not exceed 1% of the total mass of red cells. An increase in the content of reticulocytes indicates enhanced erythropoiesis.

The process of formation of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis.

Bone marrow of the bones of the skull;
pelvis;
Torso;
Sternum and vertebral discs;
Before the age of 30, erythropoiesis also occurs in the humerus and femur.

Every day the bone marrow produces more than 200 million new cells.

After full maturation, the cells enter the circulatory system through the capillary walls. The lifespan of red blood cells is 60 to 120 days. Less than 20% of erythrocyte hemolysis occurs inside the vessels, the rest is destroyed in the liver and spleen.

Functions of red blood cells

They perform a transport function. In addition to oxygen and carbon dioxide, cells carry lipids, proteins, and amino acids;
Contribute to the removal of toxins from the body, as well as poisons that are formed as a result of the metabolic and vital processes of microorganisms;
Actively participate in maintaining the balance of acid and alkali;
Participate in the process of blood clotting.

Hemoglobin

The composition of the erythrocyte includes a complex iron-containing protein hemoglobin, the main function of which is the transfer of oxygen between tissues and lungs, as well as the partial transport of carbon dioxide.

The composition of hemoglobin includes:

A large protein molecule is a globin;
The non-protein structure embedded in globin is heme. At the core of the heme is an iron ion.

In the lungs, iron binds with oxygen, and it is this connection that contributes to the acquisition of a characteristic shade of blood.

Blood groups and Rh factor

Antigens are located on the surface of red blood cells, of which there are several varieties. That is why the blood of one person can be different from the blood of another. Antigens form the Rh factor and blood type.

The presence / absence of the Rh antigen on the surface of the erythrocyte determines the Rh factor (in the presence of Rh, the Rh is positive, in the absence it is negative).

Determination of the Rh factor and the group affiliation of human blood is of great importance in the transfusion of donor blood. Some antigens are incompatible with each other, causing the destruction of blood cells, which can lead to the death of the patient. It is very important to transfuse blood from a donor whose blood type and Rh factor match those of the recipient.

Leukocytes - blood cells that perform the function of phagocytosis

Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are blood cells that perform a protective function. Leukocytes contain enzymes that destroy foreign proteins. Cells are able to detect harmful agents, "attack" them and destroy them (phagocytize). In addition to the elimination of harmful microparticles, leukocytes take an active part in cleansing the blood from decay and metabolic products.

Thanks to the antibodies that are produced by leukocytes, the human body becomes resistant to certain diseases.

Leukocytes have a beneficial effect on:

metabolic processes;
Providing organs and tissues with the necessary hormones;
Enzymes and other essential substances.

Leukocytes are divided into 2 groups: granular (granulocytes) and non-granular (agranulocytes).

Granular leukocytes include:

The group of non-granular leukocytes includes:

Neutrophils

The largest group of leukocytes, accounting for almost 70% of their total number. This type of leukocyte got its name because of the ability of the granularity of the cell to stain with paints that have a neutral reaction.

Neutrophils are classified according to the shape of the nucleus into:

Young, not having a nucleus;
Band-nuclear, the nucleus of which is represented by a rod;
Segmentonuclear, the core of which is 4-5 segments interconnected.

Neutrophils

When counting neutrophils in a blood test, the presence of no more than 1% of young, no more than 5% of stab and no more than 70% of segmented cells is acceptable.

The main function of neutrophilic leukocytes is protective, which is realized through phagocytosis - the process of detecting, capturing and destroying bacteria or viruses.

1 neutrophil is able to "neutralize" up to 7 microbes.

The neutrophil is also involved in the development of inflammation.

Basophils

The smallest subspecies of leukocytes, the volume of which is less than 1% of the number of all cells. Basophilic leukocytes are named because of the ability of the granularity of the cell to be stained only with alkaline dyes (basic).

The functions of basophilic leukocytes are due to the presence of active biological substances in them. Basophils produce heparin, which prevents blood clotting at the site of the inflammatory reaction, and histamine, which dilates capillaries, which leads to faster resorption and healing. Basophils also contribute to the development of allergic reactions.

Eosinophils

A subspecies of leukocytes, which got its name due to the fact that its granules are stained with acidic dyes, the main of which is eosin.

The number of eosinophils is 1-5% of the total number of leukocytes.

Cells have the ability to phagocytosis, but their main function is the neutralization and elimination of protein toxins, foreign proteins.

Also, eosinophils are involved in the self-regulation of body systems, produce neutralizing inflammatory mediators, and participate in blood purification.

Monocytes

A subspecies of leukocytes that does not have granularity. Monocytes are large cells resembling a triangle in shape. Monocytes have a large nucleus of various shapes.

Monocyte formation occurs in the bone marrow. In the process of maturation, the cell goes through several stages of maturation and division.

Immediately after the young monocyte matures, it enters the circulatory system, where it lives for 2-5 days. After that, some of the cells die, and some leave to "ripen" to the stage of macrophages - the largest blood cells, whose lifespan is up to 3 months.

Monocytes perform the following functions:

Produce enzymes and molecules that contribute to the development of inflammation;
Participate in phagocytosis;
Promote tissue regeneration;
Helps in the restoration of nerve fibers;
Promotes the growth of bone tissue.

Monocytes

Macrophages phagocytize harmful agents in tissues and suppress the process of reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms.

Lymphocytes

The central link of the defense system, which is responsible for the formation of a specific immune response and provides protection against everything foreign in the body.

The formation, maturation and division of cells occurs in the bone marrow, from where they are sent through the circulatory system to the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen for full maturation. Depending on where full maturation occurs, T-lymphocytes (matured in the thymus) and B-lymphocytes (ripened in the spleen or in the lymph nodes) are isolated.

The main function of T-lymphocytes is to protect the body by participating in immune responses. T-lymphocytes phagocytize pathogenic agents, destroy viruses. The reaction that these cells carry out is called "nonspecific resistance".

B-lymphocytes are called cells capable of producing antibodies - special protein compounds that prevent the reproduction of antigens and neutralize the toxins they release during their life. For each type of pathogenic microorganism, B-lymphocytes produce individual antibodies that eliminate a specific type.

T-lymphocytes phagocytize, mainly viruses, B-lymphocytes destroy bacteria.

What antibodies are produced by lymphocytes?

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies that are contained in cell membranes and in the serum part of the blood. With the development of an infection, antibodies begin to rapidly enter the bloodstream, where they recognize disease-causing agents and “inform” the immune system about this.

The following types of antibodies are distinguished:

Immunoglobulin M - up to 10% of the total amount of antibodies in the body. They are the largest antibodies and are formed immediately after the introduction of the antigen into the body;
Immunoglobulin G is the main group of antibodies that plays a leading role in protecting the human body and forms immunity in the fetus. Cells are the smallest among antibodies and are able to overcome the placental barrier. Together with this immunoglobulin, immunity from many pathologies is transferred to the fetus from the mother to her unborn child;
Immunoglobulin A - protect the body from the influence of antigens that enter the body from the external environment. The synthesis of immunoglobulin A is produced by B-lymphocytes, but in large quantities they are not found in the blood, but on the mucous membranes, breast milk, saliva, tears, urine, bile and secretions of the bronchi and stomach;
Immunoglobulin E - antibodies secreted during allergic reactions.

Lymphocytes and immunity

After a microbe meets a B-lymphocyte, the latter is able to form “memory cells” in the body, which causes resistance to pathologies caused by this bacterium. For the appearance of memory cells, medicine has developed vaccines aimed at developing immunity to especially dangerous diseases.

Where are leukocytes destroyed?

The process of destruction of leukocytes is not fully understood. To date, it has been proven that of all the mechanisms of cell destruction, the spleen and lungs are involved in the destruction of white blood cells.

Platelets are cells that protect the body from fatal blood loss.

Platelets are blood cells that are involved in hemostasis. Represented by small biconvex cells that do not have a nucleus. The platelet diameter varies within 2-10 microns.

Platelets are produced by the red bone marrow, where they undergo 6 maturation cycles, after which they enter the bloodstream and stay there for 5 to 12 days. Platelet destruction occurs in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

While in the bloodstream, platelets have the shape of a disk, but when activated, the platelet takes the form of a sphere, on which pseudopodia are formed - special outgrowths with which the platelets are interconnected and adhere to the damaged surface of the vessel.

In the human body, platelets perform 3 main functions:

They create "plugs" on the surface of the damaged blood vessel, helping to stop bleeding (primary thrombus);
Participate in blood clotting, which is also important for stopping bleeding;
Platelets provide nutrition to vascular cells.

Platelets are classified into.

Blood is the most important system in the human body, performing many different functions. Blood is a transport system through which vital substances are transferred to the organs and waste substances, decay products and other elements that are to be eliminated from the body are removed from the cells. The blood also circulates substances and cells that provide protection for the body as a whole.

Blood consists of cells and a liquid part - serum, consisting of proteins, fats, sugars and trace elements.

There are three main types of cells in the blood:

red blood cells;
Leukocytes;

Erythrocytes - cells that transport oxygen to tissues

Erythrocytes are called highly specialized cells that do not have a nucleus (lost during maturation). Most of the cells are represented by biconcave discs, the average diameter of which is 7 µm, and the peripheral thickness is 2-2.5 µm. There are also spherical and domed erythrocytes.

Due to the shape, the surface of the cell is greatly enlarged for gaseous diffusion. Also, this shape helps to increase the plasticity of the erythrocyte, due to which it is deformed and moves freely through the capillaries.

In pathological and old cells, plasticity is very low, and therefore they are retained and destroyed in the capillaries of the reticular tissue of the spleen.

The erythrocyte membrane and non-nuclear cells provide the main function of erythrocytes - the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The membrane is absolutely impermeable to cations (except potassium) and highly permeable to anions. The membrane is 50% composed of proteins that determine the belonging of the blood to a group and provide a negative charge.

Erythrocytes differ among themselves in:

size;
age;
Resistance to adverse factors.

Video: Red blood cells

Erythrocytes are the most numerous cells in human blood.

Erythrocytes are classified according to the degree of maturity into groups that have their own distinctive features.

ripening stage	features
erythroblast	diameter - 20-25 microns; the nucleus, which occupies more than 2/3 of the cell with nucleoli (up to 4); the cytoplasm is brightly basophilic, purple.
Pronormocyte	diameter - 10-20 microns; nucleus without nucleoli; chromatin is rough; the cytoplasm becomes brighter.
Basophilic normoblast	diameter - 10-18 microns; chromatin is segmented; basochromatin and oxychromatin zones are formed.
Polychromatophilic normoblast	diameter - 9-13 microns; destructive changes in the nucleus; oxyphilic cytoplasm due to high hemoglobin content.
Oxyphilic normoblast	diameter - 7-10 microns; pink cytoplasm.
reticulocyte	diameter - 9-12 microns; the cytoplasm is yellow-green.
Normocyte (mature erythrocyte)	diameter - 7-8 microns; the cytoplasm is red.

In the peripheral blood, both mature and young and old cells are found. Young erythrocytes, in which there are remnants of nuclei, are called reticulocytes.

The number of young erythrocytes in the blood should not exceed 1% of the total mass of red cells. An increase in the content of reticulocytes indicates enhanced erythropoiesis.

The process of formation of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis.

Erythropoiesis occurs in:

Bone marrow of the bones of the skull;
pelvis;
Torso;
Sternum and vertebral discs;
Before the age of 30, erythropoiesis also occurs in the humerus and femur.

Every day the bone marrow produces more than 200 million new cells.

After full maturation, the cells enter the circulatory system through the capillary walls. The lifespan of red blood cells is 60 to 120 days. Less than 20% of erythrocyte hemolysis occurs inside the vessels, the rest is destroyed in the liver and spleen.

Functions of red blood cells

They perform a transport function. In addition to oxygen and carbon dioxide, cells carry lipids, proteins, and amino acids;
Contribute to the removal of toxins from the body, as well as poisons that are formed as a result of the metabolic and vital processes of microorganisms;
Actively participate in maintaining the balance of acid and alkali;
Participate in the process of blood clotting.

The composition of the erythrocyte includes a complex iron-containing protein hemoglobin, the main function of which is the transfer of oxygen between tissues and lungs, as well as the partial transport of carbon dioxide.

The composition of hemoglobin includes:

A large protein molecule is a globin;
The non-protein structure embedded in globin is heme. At the core of the heme is an iron ion.

In the lungs, iron binds with oxygen, and it is this connection that contributes to the acquisition of a characteristic shade of blood.

Blood groups and Rh factor

antigen	blood type
0	I
0A	II
0B	III
AB	IV

The presence / absence of the Rh antigen on the surface of the erythrocyte determines the Rh factor (in the presence of Rh, the Rh is positive, in the absence it is negative).

Determining the Rh factor and the blood type of a person is of great importance when transfusing donor blood. Some antigens are incompatible with each other, causing the destruction of blood cells, which can lead to the death of the patient. It is very important to transfuse blood from a donor whose blood type and Rh factor match those of the recipient.

Leukocytes - blood cells that perform the function of phagocytosis

Thanks to the antibodies that are produced by leukocytes, the human body becomes resistant to certain diseases.

Leukocytes have a beneficial effect on:

metabolic processes;
Providing organs and tissues with the necessary hormones;
Enzymes and other essential substances.

Leukocytes are divided into 2 groups: granular (granulocytes) and non-granular (agranulocytes).

Granular leukocytes include:

The group of non-granular leukocytes includes:

Varieties of leukocytes

The largest group of leukocytes, accounting for almost 70% of their total number. This type of leukocyte got its name because of the ability of the granularity of the cell to stain with paints that have a neutral reaction.

Neutrophils are classified according to the shape of the nucleus into:

Young, which do not have a nucleus;
stab, the core of which is represented by a rod;
Segmented, the core of which is 4-5 segments interconnected.

When counting neutrophils in a blood test, the presence of no more than 1% of young, no more than 5% of stab and no more than 70% of segmented cells is acceptable.

The main function of neutrophilic leukocytes is protective, which is realized through phagocytosis - the process of detecting, capturing and destroying bacteria or viruses.

1 neutrophil is able to "neutralize" up to 7 microbes.

The neutrophil is also involved in the development of inflammation.

The smallest subspecies of leukocytes, the volume of which is less than 1% of the number of all cells. Basophilic leukocytes are named because of the ability of the granularity of the cell to be stained only with alkaline dyes (basic).

A subspecies of leukocytes, which got its name due to the fact that its granules are stained with acidic dyes, the main of which is eosin.

The number of eosinophils is 1-5% of the total number of leukocytes.

Cells have the ability to phagocytosis, but their main function is the neutralization and elimination of protein toxins, foreign proteins.

Also, eosinophils are involved in the self-regulation of body systems, produce neutralizing inflammatory mediators, and participate in blood purification.

Eosinophil

A subspecies of leukocytes that does not have granularity. Monocytes are large cells that resemble a triangle in shape. Monocytes have a large nucleus of various shapes.

Monocyte formation occurs in the bone marrow. In the process of maturation, the cell goes through several stages of maturation and division.

Immediately after the young monocyte matures, it enters the circulatory system, where it lives for 2-5 days. After that, some of the cells die, and some leave to "ripen" to the stage of macrophages - the largest blood cells, whose lifespan is up to 3 months.

Monocytes perform the following functions:

Produce enzymes and molecules that contribute to the development of inflammation;
Participate in phagocytosis;
Promote tissue regeneration;
Helps in the restoration of nerve fibers;
Promotes the growth of bone tissue.

Macrophages phagocytize harmful agents in tissues and suppress the process of reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms.

The central link of the defense system, which is responsible for the formation of a specific immune response and provides protection against everything foreign in the body.

The formation, maturation and division of cells occurs in the bone marrow, from where they are sent through the circulatory system to the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen for full maturation. Depending on where full maturation occurs, T-lymphocytes (matured in the thymus) and B-lymphocytes (ripened in the spleen or in the lymph nodes) are isolated.

The main function of T-lymphocytes is to protect the body by participating in immune responses. T-lymphocytes phagocytize pathogenic agents, destroy viruses. The reaction that these cells carry out is called "nonspecific resistance".

B-lymphocytes are called cells capable of producing antibodies - special protein compounds that prevent the reproduction of antigens and neutralize the toxins they release during their life. For each type of pathogenic microorganism, B-lymphocytes produce individual antibodies that eliminate a particular type.

T-lymphocytes phagocytize, mainly viruses, B-lymphocytes destroy bacteria.

What antibodies are produced by lymphocytes?

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies that are contained in cell membranes and in the serum part of the blood. With the development of an infection, antibodies begin to rapidly enter the bloodstream, where they recognize disease-causing agents and “inform” the immune system about this.

The following types of antibodies are distinguished:

Immunoglobulin M- up to 10% of the total amount of antibodies in the body. They are the largest antibodies and are formed immediately after the introduction of the antigen into the body;
Immunoglobulin G- the main group of antibodies that plays a leading role in protecting the human body and forms immunity in the fetus. Cells are the smallest among antibodies and are able to overcome the placental barrier. Together with this immunoglobulin, immunity from many pathologies is transferred to the fetus from the mother to her unborn child;
Immunoglobulin A- protect the body from the influence of antigens that enter the body from the external environment. The synthesis of immunoglobulin A is produced by B-lymphocytes, but in large quantities they are not found in the blood, but on the mucous membranes, breast milk, saliva, tears, urine, bile and secretions of the bronchi and stomach;
Immunoglobulin E- antibodies released during allergic reactions.

Lymphocytes and immunity

After a microbe meets a B-lymphocyte, the latter is able to form “memory cells” in the body, which causes resistance to pathologies caused by this bacterium. For the appearance of memory cells, medicine has developed vaccines aimed at developing immunity to especially dangerous diseases.

Where are leukocytes destroyed?

Platelets are cells that protect the body from fatal blood loss.

Platelets are blood cells that are involved in hemostasis. Represented by small biconvex cells that do not have a nucleus. The platelet diameter varies within 2-10 microns.

Platelets are produced by the red bone marrow, where they undergo 6 maturation cycles, after which they enter the bloodstream and stay there for 5 to 12 days. Platelet destruction occurs in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

In the human body, platelets perform 3 main functions:

They create "plugs" on the surface of the damaged blood vessel, helping to stop bleeding (primary thrombus);
Participate in blood clotting, which is also important for stopping bleeding;
Platelets provide nutrition to vascular cells.

Platelets are classified into:

microforms- platelet with a diameter of up to 1.5 microns;
normoforms- platelet with a diameter of 2 to 4 microns;
macroforms- platelet with a diameter of 5 microns;
Megaloforms- a platelet with a diameter of up to 6-10 microns.

The rate of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets in the blood (table)

age	floor	erythrocytes (x 10 12 / l)	leukocytes (x 10 9 / l)	platelets (x 10 9 /l)
1-3 months	husband	3,5 - 5,1	6,0 - 17,5	180 - 490
	wives
3-6 months	husband	3,9 - 5,5
	wives
6-12 months	husband	4,0 - 5,3		180 - 400
	wives
1-3 years	husband	3,7 - 5,0	6,0 - 17,0	160 - 390
	wives
3-6 years old	husband		5,5 - 17,5
	wives
6-12 years old	husband		4,5 - 14,0	160 - 380
	wives
12-15 years old	husband	4,1 - 5,5

An increase at a time allows you to see details with a size of 1-5 nanometers (that is, billionths of a meter).

Max Knoll obtained the first SEM image in 1935, and already in 1965 the Cambridge Tool Company offered its Stereoscan to DuPont. Now such devices are widely used in research centers.

The images below will take you on a journey through your body, from your head to your intestines and pelvic organs. You'll see what normal cells look like and what happens to them when cancer strikes them, and you'll also get a visual representation of how, say, the first meeting of an egg and sperm occurs.

red blood cells

Here is depicted, one might say, the basis of your blood - red blood cells (RBC). These pretty biconcave cells are responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. Usually in one cubic millimeter of blood there are 4-5 million such cells in women and 5-6 million in men. People living in the highlands, where there is a lack of oxygen, have even more red cells.

Split human hair

To avoid this kind of hair splitting that is invisible to the ordinary eye, you need to cut your hair regularly and use good shampoos and conditioners.

Purkinje cells

Of the 100 billion neurons in your brain, Purkinje cells are among the largest. Among other things, they are responsible in the cerebellar cortex for motor coordination. They are detrimental to alcohol or lithium poisoning, as well as autoimmune diseases, genetic abnormalities (including autism), as well as neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, etc.).

Sensitive ear hairs

This is what stereocilia look like, that is, the sensitive elements of the vestibular apparatus inside your ear. Capturing sound vibrations, they control the reciprocal mechanical movements and actions.

Blood vessels of the optic nerve

Shown here are retinal blood vessels emerging from a black-stained optic disc. This disk is a "blind spot" because there are no light receptors in this area of the retina.

Taste bud of the tongue

There are taste receptors on the human tongue that help determine the taste of salty, sour, bitter, sweet and spicy.

Plaque

In order to avoid such layers similar to non-threshed spikelets on the teeth, it is advisable to brush your teeth more often.

Thrombus

Remember how beautiful healthy red blood cells looked. Now look at what they become in the web of a deadly blood clot. In the very center is a white blood cell (leukocyte).

Pulmonary alveoli

Here is a view of your lung from the inside. Empty cavities are alveoli where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide.

lung cancer cells

And now take a look at how the lungs deformed by cancer differ from healthy ones in the previous picture.

Villi of the small intestine

The villi of the small intestine increase its area, which contributes to better absorption of food. These are outgrowths of irregular cylindrical shape up to 1.2 mm high. The basis of the villi is loose connective tissue. In the center, like a rod, there is a wide lymphatic capillary, or milky sinus, and on the sides of it there are blood vessels and capillaries. Through the lactiferous sinus, fats enter the lymph, and then into the blood, and proteins and carbohydrates enter the bloodstream through the blood capillaries of the villi. On closer examination, you can see food residues in the grooves.

Human ovum with coronal cells

Here you see a human egg. The egg is covered with a glycoprotein coat (zona pellicuda), which not only protects it, but also helps to capture and hold the sperm. Two coronal cells are attached to the shell.

Spermatozoa on the surface of the egg

The picture captures the moment when several spermatozoa are trying to fertilize the egg.

Human embryo and spermatozoa

It looks like a war of the worlds, but in fact, you have an egg in front of you 5 days after fertilization. Some spermatozoa are still held on its surface. The image was taken using a confocal (confocal) microscope. The egg and sperm nuclei are purple, while the sperm flagella are green. The blue areas are nexuses, intercellular gap junctions that communicate between cells.

Human Embryo Implantation

You are present at the beginning of a new life cycle. A six-day-old human embryo is implanted in the endometrium, the lining of the uterine cavity. We wish him good luck!

Blood cells and their functions

Human blood is a liquid substance consisting of plasma and formed elements, or blood cells, that are in suspension in it, which make up approximately % of the total volume. They are small and can only be seen under a microscope.

All blood cells are divided into red and white. The first are erythrocytes, which make up most of all cells, the second are leukocytes.

Platelets are also considered to be blood cells. These small platelets are not actually complete cells. They are small fragments separated from large cells - megakaryocytes.

red blood cells

The place of formation of red blood cells is the red bone marrow. They live 120 days and are destroyed in the spleen and liver.

In addition to hemoglobin, the cytoplasm of the erythrocyte contains various enzymes (phosphatase, cholinesterases, carbonic anhydrase, etc.).

The erythrocyte membrane has a fairly simple structure compared to the membranes of other cells. It is an elastic thin mesh, which ensures rapid gas exchange.

Leukocytes

Leukocytes are white blood cells whose main task is to protect the body from internal and external enemies.

Neutrophils

Basophils

Formed in the bone marrow from basophilic myeloblasts. After maturation, they enter the blood, where they stay for about two days, then go into the tissues. What happens next is still unknown.

Eosinophils

These granulocytes make up approximately 2-5% of the total white cells. Their granules are stained with an acidic dye - eosin.

Lymphocytes

Two types of mature lymphocytes circulate in the blood:

Narrow plasma. They have a rough, dark purple nucleus and a narrow blue-rimmed cytoplasm.
Wide plasma. In this case, the kernel has a paler color and a bean-shaped shape. The rim of the cytoplasm is quite wide, gray-blue in color, with rare ausurophilic granules.

Of the atypical lymphocytes in the blood, one can detect:

Small cells with barely visible cytoplasm and pycnotic nucleus.
Cells with vacuoles in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
Cells with lobulated, kidney-shaped, notched nuclei.
Naked kernels.

The actions of T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes are different, although both are involved in the formation of immune responses.

According to the actions performed, T-lymphocytes are divided into three types:

T-helpers. Their main task is to help B-lymphocytes, but in some cases they can act as killers.
T-killers. They destroy harmful agents: foreign, cancerous and mutated cells, infectious agents.
T-suppressors. They inhibit or block too active reactions of B-lymphocytes.

Monocytes

platelets

Blood platelets can have different sizes:

the smallest are microforms, their diameter does not exceed 1.5 microns;
normoforms reach 2-4 microns;
macroforms - 5 µm;
megaloforms - 6-10 microns.

Conclusion

Human blood at low and high magnification microscope.

At a low magnification of the microscope (lens 8x), a large number of erythrocytes are visible: these are pink cells of a rounded shape and without nuclei. Among the numerous erythrocytes, leukocytes are visible - colorless cells with dark-colored nuclei.

At a high magnification of the microscope (lens 40x), densely arranged erythrocytes of a rounded shape and pink color are more clearly visible, the middle of which has a light pink color. Among the erythrocytes, larger colorless cells with dark blue nuclei are visible; moreover, some of them - neutrophils - have an irregularly shaped nucleus and granular cytoplasm, while others - lymphocytes - have a large round nucleus with a narrow area of non-granular cytoplasm.

What do familiar objects look like under an electron microscope?

“Looking at things from a different angle” is a common cliche, but sometimes it’s really interesting to look at the familiar things around us “from a different angle.” A great opportunity to do this is for those who are lucky enough to work with scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), which cost several hundred thousand dollars and can magnify objects a million times.

In this article, we offer to look at the parts of various objects, enlarged by SEM. In the photo above, for example, particles of salt and ground pepper.

We previously published a similar post, but there were few photos. This time we have selected more interesting pictures with explanations. So let's go! 🙂

Tungsten filament in incandescent lamps:

Part of a postage stamp:

Crystals of refined and unrefined sugar:

Head of an unused match:

The eye of a sewing needle with a thread threaded through it:

Chicken egg shell (3900x magnification):

Used dental floss:

Ear stick cotton (with earwax):

Piece of toilet paper:

Human tooth structure:

Toothbrush bristles:

Graphite pencil lead:

Eyelashes growing from the eyelid:

Electric razor blades with shaved hair:

Pieces of blood on the cut:

Water crystals at -145 degrees Celsius:

Elastic fibers of polyester tape from a laboratory mask:

Ink on a ten dollar bill:

The most common sheet of A4 paper:

Human hair tied in a knot:

Microscopic mirrors of a DLP projector, each such mirror is one pixel in the projected image:

Bacteria on human tongue:

Ordinary house dust - here and cat fur, and synthetics and wool fibers, insect scales, pollen, as well as the remains of insects and plants (as you can see, contrary to urban legends, dust does not consist of 70% of dead human skin):

Shaving cream and shaved hair between two razor blades:

Hypodermic needle with blood particles:

Human blood under a microscope drawing

Alexander Nevsky.. Wat so Wat

Damn, there was a hellish piccha where the geographer says that the topic of the lessons is relief, and Nevsky gets up and shows her his “forms”, they say, these are the relief, the old one, adding at the end they say f*shshte millet. I'll give half my kingdom for the original 🙁

i just stand there

It wasn't that hard.

*Gif with BadComedian and the gopnik's stab wound and blood from seeds*

You are telling lies. Here is our blood!

When Belarusian blood boils

nope, dude, it would be scary to visit you)

On the other side. moonshine, you say? =)

By the way, I'm not sure about moonshine. It seems to me that vodka has long supplanted it. Personally, I would love to make beer or wine.

Belarusian dog blood: (similar to chicken slices)

I do not have a dog. And fortunately - if I fed her like that, she would die long and painfully O_o

(Seriously, I don't know what this crap is. Maybe good, but it looks. so-so).

Look at that fucking dog in the hat!

Imagine: you put five hot pancakes on a plate. Drizzle with cold sour cream. Saw off a piece with a fork and am! mmmm, enjoy))

In general, you surprise me: you are sitting at a computer on a peekaboo, and you can’t go and have lunch right now?)

monsters, I almost choked with saliva

..yoyoly, that's what I've been wanting for a long time!), great idea, ATP

What? A couple of pieces? So it was possible? Draniki is always 2-3 kg of potatoes!

And how many liters of oil))

yes, yes, I also wanted to post Kazy))

chuchuk - horse member?

Not the fact that he "ate".

What did they give the horses to drink, that koumiss in vodka bottles?

While you were writing a comment, I already managed to change the picture, to a more appropriate one. Sorry :(

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Human blood under a microscope

Have you ever wanted to see with your own eyes what human blood looks like under a microscope? After all, this is one of the most interesting tissues in the body! It consists of many cells of different types and performs vital functions: transport (carries oxygen throughout the body), protective (special cells eliminate harmful microorganisms) and homeostatic (maintains the constancy of the internal environment of the body).

In order for you to be able to see how human blood is arranged, the microscope must give at least 1000x magnification. Consider this when choosing it.

What does blood look like under a microscope?

At high magnification, all three types of blood cells can be seen.

Red blood cells are disc-shaped red blood cells that transport oxygen throughout the human body. Diameter - 7–10 microns. The color of these cells is due to the content of hemoglobin in them - a special substance that allows them to carry oxygen molecules. These cells are the most numerous, therefore, when examining human blood under a microscope, you will see them first.

Leukocytes are round-shaped cells ranging in size from 7 to 20 microns. It is they who form the immune system that protects the body from pathogenic viruses, bacteria and fungi. There are several types of leukocytes: lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils.

Platelets are flat, colorless cells that are responsible for blood clotting. They have the smallest dimensions - from 2 to 4 microns - therefore, they can only be examined in detail with the help of a professional microscope.

Blood under a microscope - photo

If you do not have the opportunity to purchase a microscope, you can see numerous photos of blood cells on the Internet. Many of them were made using professional optical and photographic equipment, so they are very detailed and make it possible to learn all the subtleties of the cellular structure of blood.

But no photographs can replace the real study of a micropreparation in a microscope! And if you are a fan of learning new things, think about the long-awaited purchase of optical equipment and discover all the secrets of the microcosm that is not visible to the naked eye.

If you want to experiment and take a photo of blood under a microscope on your own, even a smartphone or an entry-level camera is enough for a start. Using the adapter, you can connect the gadget to the microscope and take colorful pictures.

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The manufacturer reserves the right to make any changes to the price, model range and specifications or discontinue the production of the product without prior notice.

The human body under a microscope (17 photos)

The human body is such a complex and well-coordinated “mechanism” that most of us cannot even imagine! This series of photographs taken using electron microscopy will help you learn a little more about your body and see what we cannot see in our ordinary life. Welcome to the organs!

Alveoli of the lungs with two red blood cells (erythrocytes). (photo by CMEABG-UCBL/Phanie)

30-fold increase in the base of the nail.

The iris of the eye and adjacent structures. In the lower right corner - the edge of the pupil (in blue). (photo by STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY)

Red blood cells fall out (if I may say so) from a broken capillary.

Nerve ending. This nerve ending was dissected to reveal vesicles (orange and blue) containing chemicals that are used to transmit signals in the nervous system. (photo by TINA CARVALHO)

Red blood cells in an artery.

Taste receptors on the tongue.

Eyelashes, 50x magnification.

Finger pad, 35x magnification. (photo by Richard Kessel)

Sweat pore that comes to the surface of the skin.

Blood vessels coming from the optic papilla (where the optic nerve enters the retina).

The egg that gives rise to a new organism is the largest cell in the human body: its weight is equal to the weight of 600 sperm.

spermatozoa. Only one spermatozoon penetrates the egg, overcoming the layer of small cells that surround it. As soon as he gets into it, no other sperm can do it.

Human embryo and spermatozoa. The egg was fertilized 5 days ago and some of the remaining sperm are still attached to it.

An 8-day-old embryo at the beginning of its life cycle.

Blood

112. Write down the main functions of the blood.

It performs many important functions. The main one is transport: enriched in the lungs with oxygen, and in the walls of the small intestine with nutrients, it delivers them to all organs. From the organs, the blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs, and metabolic products to the skin and kidneys. Blood carries out communication between the organs of our body, and also takes part in the regulation of the body's work due to the fact that the endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood.

Blood protects the body from toxic substances, pathogens: in the blood, toxic substances are neutralized, and microbes are destroyed by leukocytes, lymphocytes or are rendered harmless by special protective substances. Blood is also involved in the regulation of body temperature, transferring heat from the organs that produce it to rapidly cooling organs, such as the skin.

114. Using the material of the textbook, make a pie chart "The composition of blood plasma."

115. Perform laboratory work "Microscopic structure of blood."

1. Examine the prepared micropreparation of human blood given to you under a microscope.

2. Find clearly visible cells on the preparation and draw them.

A micropreparation of human blood under a microscope.

3. Label the blood cells on the drawing.

4. Draw a conclusion which cells are part of the human blood, which cells are more in the blood.

Conclusion: the composition of the blood includes erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. Red blood cells are clearly visible under a microscope, because they are most in the blood. Leukocytes are much more difficult to find under a microscope, since only 2-3 cells can get into the field of view. There are more platelets in the blood than leukocytes, up to 400 thousand per 1 mm3 of blood, because these cells are smaller.

5. Explain how the structure of blood cells is related to the functions they perform.

Erythrocytes are small non-nuclear cells of a biconcave shape. This form significantly increases the surface of red blood cells. What allows them to perform their main respiratory function of blood: hemoglobin easily combines with more oxygen than it would have if it had a core and not a concave shape. Red blood cells are also involved in the removal of carbon dioxide from tissues.

Leukocytes do not have a permanent shape, they move like amoebas with the help of pseudopods. It is with these pseudopods that they envelop foreign bodies, bacteria and viruses in the body. Due to the presence of lysosomes in leukocyte cells, they easily digest their "prey" (perform the function of protecting the body). Platelets (platelets) are small non-nuclear formations. They are able to gather in groups, sticking to the walls of blood vessels, thereby creating a blood clot and performing their main function - blood clotting (coagulation).

A Drop of Blood: Exploring Life and Health

Recent scientific studies have found that the state of human health can be determined by just one drop of blood. For this purpose, a heavy-duty video microscope is used. With its help, we can get a complete picture of the psychophysical state of our body. This information can be “read” from the appearance and composition of a “live” blood drop (plasma, red blood cells, leukocytes and platelets).

Many indicators that can be obtained from the appearance of blood plasma and platelets go unnoticed using traditional microscopic analysis methods.

Blood is the only liquid living tissue in our body. It consists of cellular elements: red blood cells and leukocytes, platelets (45%), which are in a liquid substance - blood plasma. It, in turn, consists of 92% water, 7% proteins, contains less than 1% inorganic salts, organic substances, insoluble non-volatile gases, hormones, antibiotics and enzymes. Plasma makes up 55% of all blood.

This priceless fluid carries oxygen from the lungs to all our organs, tissues and cells, and then from our cells back to the lungs. It also carries nutrients from the digestive organs to the liver, from where they enter the general body system.

Moreover, blood plays an important role in the protective functions of the body, as white blood cells, proteins and immunoglobulins support immunity. An irrefutable fact is that the blood maintains homeostasis - the internal balance of the body. Maintaining the required level of homeostasis is the key to good health. If the homeostasis of the body is disturbed, we get sick.

By studying a “live” drop of blood, one can obtain important information about the state of our body and even about possible health problems that may arise as a result of a long-term disturbance of homeostasis.

Looking at a drop of blood in a dark field, you can clearly see the presence of an imbalance in the body. A change in the appearance of blood cells and the plasma around them can be detected under a microscope long before the disease develops.

What is dark field diagnostics? This procedure is based on the study of a "live" blood sample. Thanks to this method, in 1901 they were able to diagnose syphilis by the presence of pale spirochetes in a drop of blood. Over the past 30 years, interest in this method has grown again, as it allows you to determine the state of metabolism in the body. Moreover, it makes it possible to find out whether a particular product is suitable for a given blood type, and also shows excessive accumulation of fluid in the body.

This study is based on the microscopic examination of a drop of blood. It is carried out within 20 minutes after taking blood, since after this time the blood cells die.

If the blood sample is protected from drying out, then the blood cells remain alive, which makes it possible to study them and the liquid substance of the blood along with its components. With the traditional analytical method, this cannot be done, since the blood is first dried, then pigmented and preserved.

The dark field microscope is equipped with a microcamera, a screen and a magnifying lens, which allows not only the doctor, but also the patient to see what is happening in the blood drop itself and what are its main characteristics.

Diagnosis by a dark-field microscope is an auxiliary method. This means that we cannot make a definitive diagnosis, but we can indicate in which direction further analyzes should be carried out. The purpose of this study is to quickly obtain information about the general health of the subject.

Hidden, unknown and mysterious microcosm reveals its secrets. When we get into the hidden world of our body, we can see how “healthy” our homeostasis is, understand how important a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition and the use of high-quality dietary supplements are.

What can be seen in a drop of blood with a dark field microscope?

We can study the shape and size of red and white blood cells and how they interact.

Human blood cells - functions where they are formed and destroyed

Blood consists of cells and a liquid part - serum, consisting of proteins, fats, sugars and trace elements.

There are three main types of cells in the blood:

Erythrocytes - cells that transport oxygen to tissues

Human erythrocytes and leukocytes

In pathological and old cells, plasticity is very low, and therefore they are retained and destroyed in the capillaries of the reticular tissue of the spleen.

Erythrocytes differ among themselves in:

Video: Red blood cells

Erythrocytes are the most numerous cells in human blood.

Erythrocytes are classified according to the degree of maturity into groups that have their own distinctive features.

In the peripheral blood, both mature and young and old cells are found. Young erythrocytes, in which there are remnants of nuclei, are called reticulocytes.

The number of young erythrocytes in the blood should not exceed 1% of the total mass of red cells. An increase in the content of reticulocytes indicates enhanced erythropoiesis.

The process of formation of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis.

Bone marrow of the bones of the skull;
pelvis;
Torso;
Sternum and vertebral discs;
Before the age of 30, erythropoiesis also occurs in the humerus and femur.

Every day the bone marrow produces more than 200 million new cells.

Functions of red blood cells

They perform a transport function. In addition to oxygen and carbon dioxide, cells carry lipids, proteins, and amino acids;
Contribute to the removal of toxins from the body, as well as poisons that are formed as a result of the metabolic and vital processes of microorganisms;
Actively participate in maintaining the balance of acid and alkali;
Participate in the process of blood clotting.

Hemoglobin

The composition of hemoglobin includes:

A large protein molecule is a globin;
The non-protein structure embedded in globin is heme. At the core of the heme is an iron ion.

In the lungs, iron binds with oxygen, and it is this connection that contributes to the acquisition of a characteristic shade of blood.

Blood groups and Rh factor

The presence / absence of the Rh antigen on the surface of the erythrocyte determines the Rh factor (in the presence of Rh, the Rh is positive, in the absence it is negative).

Leukocytes - blood cells that perform the function of phagocytosis

Thanks to the antibodies that are produced by leukocytes, the human body becomes resistant to certain diseases.

Leukocytes have a beneficial effect on:

metabolic processes;
Providing organs and tissues with the necessary hormones;
Enzymes and other essential substances.

Leukocytes are divided into 2 groups: granular (granulocytes) and non-granular (agranulocytes).

Granular leukocytes include:

The group of non-granular leukocytes includes:

Neutrophils

Neutrophils are classified according to the shape of the nucleus into:

Young, not having a nucleus;
Band-nuclear, the nucleus of which is represented by a rod;
Segmentonuclear, the core of which is 4-5 segments interconnected.

Neutrophils

When counting neutrophils in a blood test, the presence of no more than 1% of young, no more than 5% of stab and no more than 70% of segmented cells is acceptable.

The main function of neutrophilic leukocytes is protective, which is realized through phagocytosis - the process of detecting, capturing and destroying bacteria or viruses.

1 neutrophil is able to "neutralize" up to 7 microbes.

The neutrophil is also involved in the development of inflammation.

Basophils

Eosinophils

A subspecies of leukocytes, which got its name due to the fact that its granules are stained with acidic dyes, the main of which is eosin.

The number of eosinophils is 1-5% of the total number of leukocytes.

Cells have the ability to phagocytosis, but their main function is the neutralization and elimination of protein toxins, foreign proteins.

Also, eosinophils are involved in the self-regulation of body systems, produce neutralizing inflammatory mediators, and participate in blood purification.

Monocytes

A subspecies of leukocytes that does not have granularity. Monocytes are large cells resembling a triangle in shape. Monocytes have a large nucleus of various shapes.

Monocyte formation occurs in the bone marrow. In the process of maturation, the cell goes through several stages of maturation and division.

Monocytes perform the following functions:

Produce enzymes and molecules that contribute to the development of inflammation;
Participate in phagocytosis;
Promote tissue regeneration;
Helps in the restoration of nerve fibers;
Promotes the growth of bone tissue.

Monocytes

Macrophages phagocytize harmful agents in tissues and suppress the process of reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms.

Lymphocytes

The central link of the defense system, which is responsible for the formation of a specific immune response and provides protection against everything foreign in the body.

T-lymphocytes phagocytize, mainly viruses, B-lymphocytes destroy bacteria.

What antibodies are produced by lymphocytes?

The following types of antibodies are distinguished:

Immunoglobulin M - up to 10% of the total amount of antibodies in the body. They are the largest antibodies and are formed immediately after the introduction of the antigen into the body;
Immunoglobulin G is the main group of antibodies that plays a leading role in protecting the human body and forms immunity in the fetus. Cells are the smallest among antibodies and are able to overcome the placental barrier. Together with this immunoglobulin, immunity from many pathologies is transferred to the fetus from the mother to her unborn child;
Immunoglobulin A - protect the body from the influence of antigens that enter the body from the external environment. The synthesis of immunoglobulin A is produced by B-lymphocytes, but in large quantities they are not found in the blood, but on the mucous membranes, breast milk, saliva, tears, urine, bile and secretions of the bronchi and stomach;
Immunoglobulin E - antibodies secreted during allergic reactions.

Lymphocytes and immunity

Where are leukocytes destroyed?

Platelets are cells that protect the body from fatal blood loss.

Platelets are blood cells that are involved in hemostasis. Represented by small biconvex cells that do not have a nucleus. The platelet diameter varies within 2-10 microns.

In the human body, platelets perform 3 main functions:

They create "plugs" on the surface of the damaged blood vessel, helping to stop bleeding (primary thrombus);
Participate in blood clotting, which is also important for stopping bleeding;
Platelets provide nutrition to vascular cells.

Platelets are classified into.

In the anatomical structure of the human body, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems that perform all vital functions are distinguished. There are about 11 such systems in total:

Each of them has its own characteristics, structure and performs certain functions. We will consider that part of the circulatory system, which is its basis. We are talking about the liquid tissue of the human body. Let's study the composition of blood, blood cells and their significance.

Anatomy of the human cardiovascular system

The most important organ that forms this system is the heart. It is this muscle sac that plays a fundamental role in the circulation of blood throughout the body. Blood vessels of different sizes and directions depart from it, which are divided into:

veins;
arteries;
aorta;
capillaries.

These structures carry out constant circulation of a special tissue of the body - blood, which washes all cells, organs and systems as a whole. In humans (as in all mammals), two circles of blood circulation are distinguished: large and small, and such a system is called a closed system.

Its main functions are as follows:

gas exchange - the implementation of transport (that is, movement) of oxygen and carbon dioxide;
nutritional, or trophic - delivery of the necessary molecules from the digestive organs to all tissues, systems, and so on;
excretory - the withdrawal of harmful and waste substances from all structures to excretory;
delivery of products of the endocrine system (hormones) to all cells of the body;
protective - participation in immune reactions through special antibodies.

Obviously, the functions are very significant. That is why the structure of blood cells, their role and general characteristics are so important. After all, blood is the basis of the activity of the entire corresponding system.

The composition of blood and the importance of its cells

What is this red liquid with a specific taste and smell that appears on any part of the body with the slightest injury?

By its nature, blood is a type of connective tissue, consisting of a liquid part - plasma and formed elements of cells. Their percentage is about 60/40. In total, there are about 400 different compounds in the blood, both of a hormonal nature and vitamins, proteins, antibodies and trace elements.

The volume of this fluid in the body of an adult is about 5.5-6 liters. The loss of 2-2.5 of them is deadly. Why? Because blood performs a number of vital functions.

Provides homeostasis of the body (the constancy of the internal environment, including body temperature).
The work of blood and plasma cells leads to the distribution of important biologically active compounds throughout all cells: proteins, hormones, antibodies, nutrients, gases, vitamins, and metabolic products.
Due to the constancy of the composition of the blood, a certain level of acidity is maintained (pH should not exceed 7.4).
It is this tissue that takes care of removing excess, harmful compounds from the body through the excretory system and sweat glands.
Liquid solutions of electrolytes (salts) are excreted in the urine, which is provided exclusively by the work of the blood and excretory organs.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance that human blood cells have. Let us consider in more detail the structure of each structural element of this important and unique biological fluid.

Plasma

A viscous liquid of a yellowish color, occupying up to 60% of the total mass of blood. The composition is very diverse (several hundred substances and elements) and includes compounds from various chemical groups. So, this part of the blood includes:

Protein molecules. It is believed that every protein that exists in the body is initially present in the blood plasma. There are especially many albumins and immunoglobulins, which play an important role in protective mechanisms. In total, about 500 names of plasma proteins are known.
Chemical elements in the form of ions: sodium, chlorine, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, iodine, phosphorus, fluorine, manganese, selenium and others. Almost the entire Periodic system of Mendeleev is present here, about 80 items from it are in the blood plasma.
Mono-, di- and polysaccharides.
Vitamins and coenzymes.
Hormones of the kidneys, adrenal glands, gonads (adrenaline, endorphins, androgens, testosterones and others).
Lipids (fats).
Enzymes as biological catalysts.

The most important structural parts of plasma are blood cells, of which there are 3 main varieties. They are the second component of this type of connective tissue, their structure and functions deserve special attention.

red blood cells

The smallest cellular structures, the size of which does not exceed 8 microns. However, their number is over 26 trillion! - makes you forget about the insignificant volumes of a single particle.

Erythrocytes are blood cells that are devoid of the usual constituent parts of the structure. That is, they have no nucleus, no EPS (endoplasmic reticulum), no chromosomes, no DNA, and so on. If you compare this cell with anything, then a biconcave porous disk is best suited - a kind of sponge. The entire internal part, each pore is filled with a specific molecule - hemoglobin. It is a protein, the chemical basis of which is an iron atom. It is easily able to interact with oxygen and carbon dioxide, which is the main function of red blood cells.

That is, red blood cells are simply filled with hemoglobin in the amount of 270 million per piece. Why red? Because it is this color that gives them iron, which forms the basis of the protein, and because of the vast majority of red blood cells in human blood, it acquires the corresponding color.

In appearance, when viewed through a special microscope, red blood cells are rounded structures, as if flattened from the top and bottom to the center. Their precursors are stem cells produced in the bone marrow and spleen depot.

Function

The role of erythrocytes is explained by the presence of hemoglobin. These structures collect oxygen in the pulmonary alveoli and distribute it to all cells, tissues, organs and systems. At the same time, gas exchange takes place, because giving up oxygen, they take in carbon dioxide, which is also transported to the places of excretion - the lungs.

At different ages, the activity of erythrocytes is not the same. So, for example, the fetus produces a special fetal hemoglobin, which transports gases an order of magnitude more intensively than the usual one characteristic of adults.

There is a common disease that provoke red blood cells. Blood cells produced in insufficient quantities lead to anemia - a serious disease of general weakening and thinning of the vital forces of the body. After all, the normal supply of tissues with oxygen is disrupted, which causes them to starve and, as a result, fatigue and weakness.

The life span of each erythrocyte is 90 to 100 days.

platelets

Another important human blood cell is platelets. These are flat structures, the size of which is 10 times smaller than that of erythrocytes. Such small volumes allow them to quickly accumulate and stick together to fulfill their intended purpose.

As part of the body of these law enforcement officers, there are about 1.5 trillion pieces, the number is constantly replenished and updated, since their lifespan, alas, is very short - only about 9 days. Why guards? It has to do with the function they perform.

Meaning

Orienting in the parietal vascular space, blood cells, platelets, carefully monitor the health and integrity of organs. If suddenly a tissue rupture occurs somewhere, they react immediately. Sticking together, they seem to solder the place of damage and restore the structure. In addition, it is they who largely own the merit of blood clotting on the wound. Therefore, their role lies precisely in ensuring and restoring the integrity of all vessels, integuments, and so on.

Leukocytes

White blood cells, which got their name for the absolute colorlessness. But the absence of color does not diminish their significance.

Rounded bodies are divided into several main types:

eosinophils;
neutrophils;
monocytes;
basophils;
lymphocytes.

The sizes of these structures are quite significant in comparison with erythrocytes and platelets. Reach 23 microns in diameter and live only a few hours (up to 36). Their functions vary depending on the variety.

White blood cells live not only in it. In fact, they only use the liquid in order to get to the required destination and perform their functions. Leukocytes are found in many organs and tissues. Therefore, specifically in the blood, their number is small.

Role in the body

The common value of all varieties of white bodies is to provide protection from foreign particles, microorganisms and molecules.

These are the main functions that leukocytes perform in the human body.

stem cells

The life span of blood cells is negligible. Only some types of leukocytes responsible for memory can last a lifetime. Therefore, a hematopoietic system functions in the body, consisting of two organs and ensuring the replenishment of all formed elements.

These include:

red bone marrow;
spleen.

The bone marrow is of particular importance. It is located in the cavities of flat bones and produces absolutely all blood cells. In newborns, tubular formations (shin, shoulder, hands and feet) also take part in this process. With age, such a brain remains only in the pelvic bones, but it is enough to provide the entire body with blood cells.

Another organ that does not produce, but stocks up for emergencies quite voluminous amounts of blood cells is the spleen. This is a kind of "blood depot" of every human body.

Why are stem cells needed?

Blood stem cells are the most important undifferentiated formations that play a role in hematopoiesis - the formation of the tissue itself. Therefore, their normal functioning is a guarantee of health and high-quality work of the cardiovascular and all other systems.

In cases where a person loses a large amount of blood that the brain itself cannot or does not have time to replenish, it is necessary to select donors (this is also necessary in the case of blood renewal in leukemia). This process is complex, it depends on many features, for example, on the degree of kinship and comparability of people with each other in terms of other indicators.

Norms of blood cells in medical analysis

For a healthy person, there are certain norms for the number of blood cells per 1 mm 3. These indicators are as follows:

Erythrocytes - 3.5-5 million, hemoglobin protein - 120-155 g / l.
Platelets - 150-450 thousand.
Leukocytes - from 2 to 5 thousand.

These figures may vary depending on the age and health of the person. That is, blood is an indicator of the physical condition of people, so its timely analysis is the key to successful and high-quality treatment.