Methods of experimental psychosemantics, subjective scaling method. Methods of experimental psychosemantics §Method of subjective scaling §Associative experiment §Method of semantic differential §Method of personal

§Borrowed from classical psychophysics (Woodworth, Schlosberg, 1974). This is a method of directly obtaining a matrix of semantic similarity of objects. §The subject is given the task of assessing the similarity of values ​​using a certain gradational scale. For example, a scale from 0 to 5, where 0 is no similarity, 5 is almost identical. §This is a fairly accurate method (Miller, 1971), but labor-intensive. The study of semantic relations of objects requires n(n–1)/2 pairwise comparisons to construct a similarity matrix.

Next, a multivariate analysis procedure was applied. Its essence is as follows. Based on the matrix of subjective similarity (the distance between the analyzed objects), a geometric space of the minimum possible dimension is reconstructed, in which the distances between the coordinate points corresponding to the analyzed objects are similar to the subjective distances of the similarity matrix.

Mathematically, the multidimensional scaling procedure consists in determining the coordinate projections of points onto some coordinate axes, based on the known distances between points. Based on the found loadings of each word for each of the selected factors-axes of the semantic space, the coordinates of these words in the semantic space were reconstructed.

The most developed technique for semantic analysis. Discussed in detail in the works of J. Deese (1962), Dixon and Horton (1968), Creelman (1965). An analysis of the psychological nature of the processes underlying associations is given in the works of A.A. Leontyeva, L.B. Itelson, A.A. Brudny, B.A. Ermolaeva, V.F. Petrenko et al.

The measure of semantic proximity (distance) of a pair of words is the degree of coincidence in the distribution of answers. That is, the degree of similarity of objects of analysis is established through the similarity of the associations data on them. This value in the works of different authors can be called: intersection coefficient, association coefficient, overlap measure.

Associations are divided into paradigmatic (reaction words and stimulus words from the same grammatical class: father-mother, chair-table, etc.) and syntagmatic (stimulus words and reaction words from different grammatical classes: car-riding, smoking -bad, etc.)

Advantages - simplicity, ease of use, because can be simultaneously carried out on large groups of subjects; - the ability to identify unconscious components, because subjects work with meaning in the mode of use; - associative technique reflects both the cognitive structures behind linguistic meanings and the individual characteristics of the subjects, their personal meanings.

Developed in 1955 a group of American psychologists led by Charles Osgood. Initially used to study the mechanisms of synesthesia. It has been widely used in studies related to human perception and behavior, with the analysis of social attitudes and personal meanings. The SD method is a combination of scaling procedures and the method of controlled associations.

The SD method measures connotative meaning. These are states that follow the perception of a stimulus symbol and necessarily precede meaningful operations with symbols (Osgood, 1957). An analogue of this in Soviet psychology is the concept of “personal meaning”, as the meaning of meaning for the subject (A.A. Leontiev, 1965; A.N. Leontiev, 1975).

Advantages of the SD method: Compactness (unlike the associative method). ¦Ease of data processing (numerically presented standardized data is easy to statistically process). ¦The possibility of associations based on the principle of rhyming cliches, rhyming associations, i.e. associations caused not by the similarity of the content plan, but by the similarity of the expression plan.

Concept scores on individual scales correlate with each other. With the help of factor analysis, it is possible to identify bundles of highly correlated scales and group them into factors. Charles Ozgood considered the phenomenon of senesthesia to be a psychological mechanism that ensures the interconnection and grouping of scales into factors. American psychologist L. Marx (1975) considered synesthesia as a universal form of prelinguistic categorization that provides generalization at the level of the organism.

A measure of the proximity of the objects under study in the SD method is the similarity of assessment profiles given on SD scales. For example, let’s consider three profiles obtained using the SD method “Evaluation of speech properties” according to the factor of emotional expressiveness, expression. The figure shows that the first profile (*) differs significantly in estimates from the second and third profile +). And the last two profiles are similar to each other.

Factors are a form of generalization of antonym adjectives. Grouping scales into factors allows you to move from describing objects using features specified by scales (polar profile method) to a more capacious description using a smaller set of category factors.

Geometrically, the axes of semantic space are category factors (orthogonal, independent of each other). Connotative meanings of objects (emotionally rich, weakly structured and little realized forms of generalization) are specified as coordinate points or vectors within this space. These points are reconstructed based on knowledge of their projections on the factor axes (in other words, these are the factor loadings of the object for each factor).

In his studies, Ozgood (1962) scaled concepts from a wide variety of conceptual classes and identified three universal categorization factors that are identical among representatives of different linguistic cultures, people of different educational levels, and even in patients with schizophrenia compared with healthy subjects. 42 In the development of the SD method, the following trends can be identified: The transition from the construction of universal semantic spaces that differentiate vocabulary from a wide variety of class concepts to the construction of particular semantic spaces. Expanding the means of describing the analyzed objects, using non-verbal, in particular visual, contrasts to construct scales. The transition from the construction of spaces based on group average data of randomly selected subjects to the construction of semantic spaces characterizing a group of subjects united by a controlled characteristic (gender, age, social class, etc.), or to the construction of semantic spaces reflecting the differential psychological aspects of personality the subject, his cognitive style.

This method, borrowed from classical psychophysics: [see: 51], is a simple and direct method for obtaining a semantic similarity matrix. The subjects are tasked with assessing the similarity of values ​​using a certain gradation scale. For example, in the experiments of Rubinstein and Goodnow (see: 339] it was a five-digit scale, where 0 indicated the lowest degree of similarity, and 4 - the highest; in the experiments of A.P. Klimenko, a ten-point graduated scale was used [see: 100]. As he believes Miller, the direct scaling method gives the most accurate results compared to the indirect assessment technique, but is characterized by significant labor intensity [see: 330]. Thus, the study of semantic relations and objects requires the construction of a similarity matrix n(n-1) /2 pairwise comparisons.

As an example of using the subjective scaling method for the semantic analysis of adjectives and verbs, but without subsequent mathematical processing of data and construction of semantic spaces, one can cite the works of Mosier and Cliff. An example of the use of the subjective scaling method with subsequent data processing using multidimensional scaling is the work of Rips, Shobin, Smith, devoted to the reconstruction of the semantic space of the names of birds and animals. In this work, subjects were asked to rate on a four-point scale the degree of subjective similarity of 12 bird names, as well as the words bird And animal. The group mean distance matrix (which is inversely proportional to the object similarity matrix) was subjected to a multivariate analysis procedure. Its essence is as follows: based on the matrix of subjective similarity (the distance between the analyzed objects), a geometric space of the minimum possible dimension is reconstructed, in which the distances between the coordinate points corresponding to the analyzed objects are similar to the subjective distances of the similarity matrix. Mathematically, the multidimensional scaling procedure consists in determining the coordinate projections of points onto certain coordinate axes, based on the known distances between these points.

In the experiment under consideration, a two-dimensional semantic space was identified that satisfactorily describes the original data matrices. Based on the found loadings of each word for each of the selected factors-axes of the semantic space, the coordinates were reconstructed

Rice. 3. Semantic space of bird names

of these words in the semantic space (Fig. 3). The authors interpreted the horizontal axis of semantic space – Ф 1 – as the “size” factor (eagle, goose “=> robin, sparrow, blue parrot), and the vertical axis – Ф 2 – as the “wildness” factor (eagle, jay, sparrow, robin) in opposition to poultry (chicken, duck, goose). The constructed space is not only a compact form of description and differentiation of the analyzed vocabulary, but also has the status of a model representation of verbal semantic memory, which allows us to predict some patterns of its functioning. According to this model, the meanings of words are recorded in memory as sets of their semantic characteristics, and the closer the words are located in semantic space, the more similar they are in content. Indeed, if you use the word as a stimulus word in an associative experiment bird(bird), then the words will be more frequent associations robin, sparrow, jay etc., having smaller distances with this word in the semantic space.

Multidimensional scaling as a procedure for mathematical data processing is most typical for the subjective scaling method. But it is possible to apply factor and cluster analysis procedures to the matrix of data obtained using subjective scaling. For example, in our study, the matrix of similarity of actions was constructed both by subjective scaling and by attributing a set of given motives to the actions of the subjects, where the measure of the similarity of actions was the similarity of their motives [see: 186]. Factorization of data obtained in a group of adult subjects highlighted the similarity of the factor structures of the matrices constructed by both procedures. These results indicate that the subjective similarity of actions is based on their motivational aspect.

Methodologically, factorization of similarity matrices constructed using subjective scaling can be carried out in two ways: 1) when the normalized coefficient of subjective similarity is considered as an approximation to the correlation coefficient; 2) when, based on assessments of the subjective similarity of each pair of objects with all other objects, the correlation coefficient of this pair of objects is calculated, which is considered as a measure of their similarity. These assumptions allow us to move from a subjective similarity matrix to a correlation matrix, which is subject to factor analysis.

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Depending on how exactly scaling procedures are carried out, indirect and direct scaling methods are distinguished.

The methodology of indirect, indirect scaling was developed by G. Fechner. It is based on methods for determining sensation thresholds. In order to measure any sensation, it is necessary to express it in threshold units. Having determined the magnitude of the stimulus, below which the sensation does not occur, we determine the zero point of the psychophysical measurement scale, thus providing the possibility of constructing a scale of relations.

It is possible to select another stimulus, lying above the threshold value, as the starting point of the scale, but in this case we can only obtain an interval scale. Next, it is necessary to find a stimulus that causes a sensation of a barely noticeable difference from the zero sensation that occurs when the sense organ is exposed to a minimal stimulus that sets the beginning of the scale. In this way, it is possible to construct a mathematical function that describes the dependence of sensations on the physical quantities of the stimulus. The task turns out to be simpler if we take into account E. Weber’s law, which showed that the increment of the stimulus AS, causing the sensation of a barely noticeable difference turns out to be proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus itself, i.e. AS = kS. It should, however, be borne in mind that this relationship is not valid for the entire continuum of sensations, but only for its middle part.

The main problem with such a measurement procedure, however, is how to consider the relationships between the magnitudes of subtle differences. Since the indirect scaling procedure does not imply any means of comparing them, it is necessary to make an arbitrary assumption in this regard. Thus, Fechner suggested that these quantities do not depend on the magnitude of the stimulus. This assumption is called the postulate of equality of subtle differences. The introduction of this postulate made it possible to establish the nature of psychophysical dependence using a logarithmic function.

Other examples of indirect scaling are Thurstone’s method of paired comparisons, which we have already mentioned, based on the law of comparative judgments formulated by him, and Torgerson’s method of comparative categories, which is similar to it. These methods can be defined as psychometric, in contrast to Fechner's psychophysical method, since they do not require the correlation of sensation with any physical characteristic of the objects being scaled.

Finally, we note several more indirect scaling methods that have become quite widespread in various branches of psychology. These are the different options scoring method, ranking method And method of sequential categories. These methods can also be considered as direct scaling methods if the experimenter's task is limited to constructing only a weak, ordinal scale. The construction of an interval scale based on the use of these methods involves studying the frequency distribution of assessments by different experts or multiple repeated assessments by the same expert and further converting the obtained data into probability values. Then the probability distribution is transformed into the values ​​of the standard normal distribution - 2-units. We will consider these methods in more detail in the chapter “Methods of indirect scaling”.

Direct scaling methods are usually called methods that in their very procedure ensure the construction of at least an interval scale. This is achieved due to the fact that the quantitative characteristics of the measured qualities are initially given to the subject, and the subject himself is instructed to carry out a quantitative comparison of the objects of assessment, and not a qualitative one, as in the scoring method, the procedure of which is very similar to the procedure of direct assessment.

For example, the experimenter may ask the subject to rate his taste sensations as follows: "I I want you to tell me how much This sample seems sweet to you, compared to the standard." Direct scaling methods assume that the subject is actually capable of making such an assessment. Therefore, these methods do not imply any special procedures for transforming the initial data, characteristic of indirect methods. The path from the raw data provided to the subject , to the scale itself turns out to be extremely simple and short.

An important difference between direct scaling methods and the already mentioned methods of scoring, ranking, sequential categories or paired comparisons, which also make it possible to construct an interval scale, is the fact that the equality of intervals in the case of using direct scaling procedures is established directly by the subject during the assessment of the objects assigned to him, then as indirect methods, they involve the selection of equivalent intervals only on the basis of an analysis of the frequency distribution of the test subjects' responses.

Depending on what scale direct scaling methods allow to obtain, they are divided into interval methods and magnitude methods.

Interval methods allow you to set equal intervals. Thus, they can be used to obtain a scale of equal intervals. Quantity Methods based on comparing relationships and establishing their equivalence. Thus they provide a scale of relationships.

In turn, both methods can be divided into productive and evaluative methods.

Productive methods assume that subjects perform some actions with the objects being assessed. For example, an experimenter might ask a subject to set the magnitude of one stimulus to twice the magnitude of another stimulus used as a reference. When assessment methods All manipulations with stimuli are performed by the experimenter, and the subject only evaluates his sensations. For example, it may report that a new stimulus is twice as large (brighter, cooler) than the reference one, or one and a half times paler than the reference one.

So, psychological measurement involves expressing psychological characteristics in the form of some measure, which represents a value on a scale. In psychology, there are only four types of scales, differing in the number of relationships into which objects measured using the scale can enter, and in the number of operations that can be performed with these objects. Procedures for constructing scales (scaling procedures) presuppose a certain set of rules in accordance with which this or that scale is constructed. Knowledge of the features of scales and the rules for their construction is fundamentally important in psychological research, since without this it is impossible to assess the influence of psychological factors, nor their change, nor their relationship with each other. If the measurement is carried out in violation of these rules, this will lead to distortions in the research results.

Psychometric techniques

In psychological practice, the diagnosis of functional states is most often

carried out on the basis assessing the success of a certain type of implementation

activities. At the same time, the dynamics of indicators of quantity, quality and

speed of task execution, as well as the underlying changes in the corresponding

psychological functions. The subject of analysis can be real

human labor activity. The main indicators of changes in state in this

In this case, there are shifts in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of efficiency

works, mainly based on their external manifestations. However, external signs

the dynamics of labor efficiency depend on many different reasons, not

directly related to changes in functional state. In addition, for

For a large number of professions, this value cannot be quantified at all,

although the task of diagnosing the condition remains relevant. Therefore, the main

psychological diagnostic tool is the use of short tests

tests characterizing the effectiveness of various mental processes during

solving relevant behavioral problems. In this case, the estimation problem

functional state acts as a typical psychometric task - to describe and

quantify what happened under the influence of certain reasons (in this

in the case of factors influencing the condition of the subject of labor activity) shifts

psychological processes under study.

Almost any of the following can be used to diagnose conditions.

techniques developed in experimental psychology that evaluate the effectiveness

processes of perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc. These include

Bourdon proof test, Schulte tables used for characterization

attention, Ebbinghaus combination method, paired association method, techniques

continuous Kraepelin counting and elementary Pieron-Ruser encryption,

intended for the analysis of intellectual processes. The tests listed in their

numerous modifications are widely used in modern diagnostic

practice. They are considered quite effective and constitute the main arsenal

means used by psychologists.

To typical psychometric procedures tests should also be included

definitions absolute and differential sensitivity thresholds V

various modalities, determination of the critical flicker fusion frequency (CFMF),

analysis of the dynamics of sequential images. However, the observed shifts in these

psychological indicators are most often given a physiological interpretation, and they

mistakenly belong to another category of methods.

Thus, physiological is often considered one of the most common methods

Fatigue assessments - KFSM.

Changes in the functional state of sensory systems appear first

all in changes in sensitivity. Even in early studies of fatigue

evidence of decreased tactile and auditory sensitivity was noted. Dynamics of thresholds

sensitivity is observed under the influence of various factors. Essential

these quantities are affected by a wide variety of physicochemical

environmental factors (from minor nicotine intoxication to

pronounced changes in the oxygen content in the air and the amount of atmospheric

pressure, duration 0.92 0 T performance of activity63

1) First of all, the tasks by which the functional performance is judged

state, as a rule, have little in common with what a person actually performs

activities. Lack of correspondence between tests used and content

work activity in many cases leads to testing failures

functional state. As a striking example of such inadequacy of tests

we can cite the results of one study in which, after continuous 56-

There was no decrease in hours of work on the assembly line among the subjects

test performance efficiency. As K. Cameron notes, this result is unlikely to

be explained by motivational effects - in this case we would have to talk about

heroic efforts of the subjects. This rather indicates a discrepancy

the chosen method for testing tasks and the insensitivity of the analyzed

indicators.

2) Another fundamental drawback of existing psychometric methods

testing is that with their help you can evaluate only the external

the effectiveness of the analyzed function and, as a rule, nothing can be said about

reasons for the observed changes. Using the example of such a widely used group

psychometric tests, as an assessment of the dynamics of short-term indicators

memorization, it is easy to demonstrate the real significance of these difficulties.

In numerous studies of short-term memory conducted with

using traditional methods, contains data on the relative stability of its

characteristics under various unfavorable conditions. Even under extreme

loads – sudden temperature changes, gravitational overloads,

hypodynamic mode, etc. – reduction in the effectiveness of short-term

memorization occurs only when it is not directly related to character

performed activities. At the same time, a number of authors note that fatigue and other

unfavorable conditions clearly affect the processes of transferring information from

short-term memory u1087 into long-term memory and retrieving material from the latter. These

facts can be interpreted as manifestations of a high degree of automation of the process

short-term storage and the complexity of its operational structure, which is quite flexible

to ensure effective memorization when operating conditions change.

However, they do not allow us to concretize the idea of ​​the reasons underlying

The picture of shifts obtained using traditional methods is quite varied.

Consistent experimental implementation of ideas about

functional state as a systemic reaction with broad

adaptive capabilities, involves turning to the analysis of mechanisms

determining the specifics of its manifestations. Accordingly, the methodological methods used

the means must provide the possibility of obtaining such information. One of

The most promising ways to create adequate psychometric techniques are associated with

using modern theoretical concepts of functional structure

various mental processes.

When trying to describe specific mechanisms of change in efficiency

of the processes under study, knowledge of the type of impact is of fundamental importance

loads. Two alternative assumptions can be distinguished as main ones.

The first of them is that under conditions of exposure to unfavorable factors

there is a general decrease in the individual’s resources, which leads to a uniform

deterioration in performance of a wide variety of tasks. The second is based on the opinion about

specificity of the influence of load on the operation of individual structures.

On the existence of a specific or localized load effect

The results of many studies indicate. One of the most striking evidence

This assumption was obtained by analyzing the work of the left and right hemispheres

brain. Thus, it was found that if for a long time

information is addressed to only one hemisphere, then fatigue does not affect

performing tasks related to the activities of another. In addition, the left hemisphere

processing verbal information, is less resistant to negative

influence of loads than the right one, providing spatial-objective

description of the situation.

Such data can be explained using three different hypotheses:

a) under the influence of load, shifts occur in all structures, directly

included in the process of solving the problem facing the subject;

b) the load causes a generalized, but varying degree of deterioration

the activities of a wide variety of structures, including those included in the work;

c) the load causes selective, but not specific in relation to all

the peculiarities of the problem being solved, violation of certain structures.

Probably, depending on the level of analysis (individual neurons,

physiological systems, mental processes) the type of load impact can

turn out to be different. In studies devoted to the study of the course of cognitive

processes (selective attention, short-term memory, semantic

coding) under conditions of exposure to noise, fatigue, danger and other

unfavorable factors, data were obtained confirming the validity of the third

hypotheses. The negative impact of loads is reflected in violations of a certain

type of psychological operations - peculiar “weak points” in the supporting

solving a problem for a functional system. In this regard, it seems appropriate

use of a complex of differentiated diagnostic techniques that allows

obtain a simultaneous assessment of the characteristics affected by the load

elements of the system and their relationships.

One of the essential conditions for the successful use of psychometric

techniques is the technical support of the experiment. Possibilities of traditional

Formal methods organized according to the “pencil-paper” type are clearly insufficient

for a detailed analysis of the structure of the studied mental processes. Usage

hardware techniques for diagnostic purposes impose certain requirements on

unification of technical means in order to standardize testing conditions. One

one of the most powerful areas of technical rationalization of diagnostic

process is the use of a computer. On the one hand, based on control computers

it is possible to simulate various situations for the analysis of complex

mental processes in real time. This is facilitated by the use

various types of displays, with the help of which high-quality presentation is carried out

varied and practically unlimited in volume of stimulus material in

a wide range of varying time conditions. On the other hand, if there is

appropriate software makes it possible to complete

automation of diagnostic experiment. In addition to presenting the necessary

information The computer can register the test subjects’ responses and process

data directly during the testing process. Based on this it can be obtained

express assessment of a person's functional state. Formalization of the procedure

testing makes it possible to select optimal research strategies based on

adequate techniques for planning experiments and developing adaptive programs

type. In the literature there are descriptions of automated software

experiments for complex psychometric and psychophysiological

research.

However, the introduction of computers into the field of practical research is not always

turns out to be possible. Then “small” funds come to the aid of the researcher.

automation” – portable installations specialized for carrying out

testing within a limited class of psychometric tasks in advance

fixed area experimental conditions, easy to handle and suitable for

transportation. There are already similar types of

experimental stands designed for the implementation of various complexes

psychometric techniques, tested both in laboratory and in

production conditions.

Subjective assessment methods

Prospects for using subjective techniques for diagnostic purposes

explained by the variety of manifestations of symptoms of various conditions during

inner life of an individual - from a complex of feelings of fatigue to specific

changes in self-afferentation that occur under unusual conditions of activity.

Despite the widespread opinion about the information content of subjective

data, this area of ​​research has been outside scientific development for a long time.

Moreover, the issue of fundamental

the possibility of using self-report data to obtain reliable information.

Indeed, the formation of a complex of subjective experiences is directly influenced

factors such as the subject’s attitude and his self-reflection skills, the degree

awareness of symptoms and the time of their manifestation, a pronounced dependence on the level

motivation, significance of activity, personal characteristics of a person. However, according to

according to the fair statement of S. G. Gellerstein, subjective manifestations are nothing

other than a reflection of the state of objective processes in the consciousness or sensations of the

person. The researcher must find an adequate way to analyze this area

manifestations of life activity. Summarize the content of the ongoing

decades of discussion can be said in the words of B. Muschio, the creator of the first subjective

fatigue scaling techniques: “There are the most conflicting opinions about

the possibility of using feelings of fatigue as indicators of fatigue.

however, they reflect the unsuccessful attempts of modern psychology rather than

the true state of affairs."

In parallel with theoretical debates, there is an intensive development of specific

methods for subjective assessment of functional states. Most often as an object

diagnosis is fatigue. However, there are subjective methods for assessing

states of monotony, various forms of anxiety, experiences of stress.

The development of this group of techniques followed the path of careful study

symptoms of the conditions under study and identification of two main methodological

directions: the survey method and the method of scaling subjective experiences, which

in a certain sense can be considered as successive stages of preparation

diagnostic test.

Questionnaires

This group of methods is aimed at identifying qualitatively diverse

experiences of a state that can be realized with greater or less ease

person. The identified symptoms are included in the questionnaire in the form of detailed

verbal formulations in question or affirmative forms.

Quantitative assessment or determination of the severity of each symptom is not

is the main goal of such research. Characteristics of the human condition

is based on the total number of noted symptoms II analysis of their qualitative

originality. Individual questionnaires differ significantly in volume

features included in their composition and methods of their grouping. The length of the questionnaire may

vary from a few signs to several tens or even hundreds. General

the tendency in the development of modern questionnaires is the desire to limit

list of symptoms, which meets the requirements of the brevity of the test test and

ease of quantitative processing. At the same time, this presupposes the inclusion of

a list of the most important, “key” features.

The selection of informative symptoms and their grouping are the main ways

creating more compact and reliable questionnaires. When carrying out such work

multivariate statistical analysis tools are often used. In the work of S.

Kashiwagi was used in constructing the fatigue assessment questionnaire

The variety of manifestations of fatigue can be classified as follows:

symptoms of low activation, low motivation and physical disintegration.

It was assumed that the first two groups of symptoms are common to almost all

all types of labor.

The source material for constructing the questionnaire was 48 statements,

describing various manifestations of fatigue. A study was conducted in

in which 65 subjects, using a seven-point scale, assessed the suitability of each

verbal formulation for testing fatigue. Based on factorization

the obtained data, two groups of the most informative symptoms were identified,

united by the conventional names “weak activation” and “weak motivation”. In table 1

The content of the developed questionnaire is presented.

Among the symptoms included in the questionnaire are:

the presence of which is difficult for the test subject to assess, especially in conditions

production process (for example, the nature of the expression of the eyes and face). Naturally,

that this causes certain difficulties when using the test. On the other side,

the presence of such externally expressed signs is highly desirable, since they

open up the possibility of objective control over the responses of the subjects.

Table 1 Questionnaire for diagnosing fatigue by S. Kashiwagi

“Weak activation” “Weak motivation”

Not ready To work

Sunken cheeks

Avoiding Conversations

gloomy face

Lifeless eyes

Irritability

Apathetic face

Errors at work

Avoidance of gaze

Difficulty in communication

Slowness

Drowsiness

Concerns about other things

Pale face

Woody face

Trembling fingers

Inability to concentrate and listen

Developing better questionnaires involves finding

compromise solution.

One of the main methodological difficulties that arise when using

questionnaires for diagnostic purposes, – lack of adequate methods of quantitative

evaluation of the results obtained. Summary score of total number of symptoms noted

– too rough an indicator, especially if it does not take into account comparative

the significance of the presence of a particular feature. In addition, questionnaires usually do not

The severity of each symptom is determined. These shortcomings are partly

are overcome using subjective state scaling techniques.

Methods for subjective state scaling . This group of techniques

designed for a more refined assessment of the condition. The subject is asked to correlate his

sensations with a number of signs, the formulation of each of which is as concise as possible.

They are represented, as a rule, by either a pair of polar signs (“tired - not tired”,

“cheerful - lethargic”), or a separate short statement (“tired”, “weakness”,

"rested"). It is assumed that a person is able to assess the severity of

each symptom, correlating the intensity of internal experience with a given

rating scale. Depending on the form of presentation of the symptom, there are

bipolar and mono- or unipolar scales. In most cases, these techniques

are modifications of the semantic method widely used in psychology

differential by C. Osgood.

A serious problem is the search for optimal design methods

the rating scales themselves. In this case, the first question arises about the dimension

scales, their form and ways of working with them. Usually scales containing

five, seven or nine gradations. However, in some cases their number is significant

increases: for example, in one of the works of U. Lundberg and M. Frankenhäuser it is used

100 point scale. Non-graduated scales are quite widespread - so

called “visual analogues of rating scales” - and graphic scales. In that

In this case, subjects are offered straight segments of a given size, on which they

mark the distance that subjectively corresponds to the intensity of the scaled

experiences.

Against the backdrop of such diversity, studies devoted to

choosing the optimal type and size of scales. There is a justifiable tendency towards

avoiding excessive fragmentation of gradual assessments. In the study by McKell-Bii

it is shown that the accuracy of subjective scaling does not change with increasing number

gradations on a scale above five, as well as when moving to graphic scales L.

Hallsten and G. Borg prefer seven-point scales. Specially

the question of the comparative value of using bipolar and

monopolar scales. At the same time, the opinion is often expressed about the advantage

the latter.

The development of subjective methods poses the task of selection and unification

meanings of words and expressions included in the list of symptoms. For this purpose it is usually

L. Thurstone's method is used. Its implementation requires the presence of sufficient

a large group of test subjects - experts working to create their own

scales. The first stage of work consists of selecting a limited number of words and

expressions characterizing the critical degrees of the analyzed state, from

an extensive list of verbal formulations existing in every u1103 language. Then by

for a number of classifications of the same group of experts, the order of arrangement is established

selected features within the scale. Using this method, we developed and

simple one-dimensional fatigue rating scales (J. McNally, 1954), and modern

multifactorial techniques.

History of the application of the scaling method in the field of fatigue diagnostics

began with the works of B. Muschio and A. Poffenberger. The last one was proposed

a one-dimensional seven-point scale built on the basis of basic common sense

sense. It can be found in many modern studies. However, more often when

when constructing scales, they proceed from the idea of ​​the existence of a complex

heterogeneous experiences corresponding to a certain state. Supposed,

that such a symptom complex is represented by clearly different groups of signs,

the severity of which varies depending on the degree of development of the condition.

scaling physical fatigue. Using cluster analysis from the original

from the selected list of symptoms, groups of signs were identified, characterized by

the similarity of the structures of correlations within each of them and the complete

independence of different groups. Three groups of signs were identified: “fatigue”

(C1), “unwillingness to work” (C2), “motivation” (C3). Below is a list of symptoms

fatigue included in the final version of this test (Table 2). Based

comparison with data from other diagnostic methods showed that, in general,

the proposed test is suitable for measuring physical fatigue. Qualitative

analysis of the composition of the groups shows that the first of them includes symptoms of “organic”

manifestations of fatigue. This group of signs is the most numerous and clearest

of everything allocated.

Table 2. List of signs included in the “Physical Questionnaire” test

activity"

Gru sign

Sign Group

1. Increased breathing

2. Muscle pain

3. Feeling

fatigue

4.Difficulty breathing

5. Increased frequency

heartbeat

6.Weakness in the legs

7. Exhaustion

8. Trembling legs

9. Dry mouth

4. 10. Shortness of breath

11. Sweating

13. Desire to change

character

activities

14. Feeling

discomfort

15. Feeling fresh

16. Certainty in

actions

17. Interest

18. Energy

Symptoms of the “unwillingness to work” group reflect feelings of internal

discomfort and a complex of negative emotions in relation to the task being performed

activities. Although the general principle of combining selected symptoms into one group

It is quite difficult to formulate, however, the statistical manifestations of them

relationships are highly consistent across repeated measurements. For a group

signs of “motivation”, describing changes in the level of activation and focus on

activities are characterized by relatively low stability of results. Basically

the diagnostic value of this group of symptoms is beyond doubt. Her flaws

are rather a consequence of the not entirely successful selection of the initial list

wording.

In the reviewed study, the construction of a multifactorial technique

fatigue assessment was carried out on the basis of empirical data: during experiments

the most sensitive signs were selected, and their classification and formation

main groups were carried out using complex statistical procedures.

There is another way.

Test of differentiated self-assessment of fatigue, proposed by V. A. Doskin

et al., is based on preliminary identification of the main components

(abbreviated as SAN). In the original version of the test, each u1080 of them is represented by ten

polar characteristics, the degree of expression of which is determined by

seven-point scale. It is emphasized that the diagnosis of the condition is based

not only on the absolute estimates of each of the categories, which decrease with

fatigue, but also on indicators of their ratio. A rested person has all three

their divergence increases due to a greater decrease in indicators of well-being and activity

compared to subjective mood ratings. This information turns out to be

useful for finer differentiation of conditions (Fig. 7).

Thus, the main line of development of subjective assessment methods is associated with

creation of complex multivariate tests based on the use

modern mathematical apparatus and access to data accumulated in

traditional areas of use of scaling - subjective psychophysics and

psychometrics. However, methodological improvement of development procedures

subjective tests does not remove the fundamental one-sidedness obtained from them

using information-assessment of the condition from the point of view of the subject himself. Her

reliability must be supported by objective data collected in parallel.

• Association experiment

• Semantic differential method

• Methodology of personal constructs by J. Kelly

Methods of psychosemantics can be applied to the study of all forms of representation of an object to a subject. Bruner called the forms of representation of the external world in the internal: - action, - image, - sign (symbol).

• When describing methods of meaning analysis, we mainly consider the first step - constructing a method for assessing the semantic similarity of objects.

• The objects of assessment can be verbal concepts, images (drawings, portraits, colors), actions, behavior.

Subjective scaling method

• Borrowed from classical psychophysics (Woodworth, Schlosberg, 1974). This is a method of directly obtaining a matrix of semantic similarity of objects.

• The subject is given the task of assessing the “similarity of values” using a certain gradational scale. For example, a scale from 0 to 5, where 0 is no similarity, 5 is almost identical.

• This is a fairly accurate method (Miller, 1971), but labor-intensive. The study of semantic relations of objects requires n(n–1)/2 pairwise comparisons to construct a similarity matrix.

EXAMPLE

• Reconstruction of the semantic space of birds and animals

• (Reeps, Shobin, Smith, 1973).

• The subjects were asked to rate the degree of subjective similarity of 12 bird names on a 4-point scale.

• Next, a multivariate analysis procedure was applied.

• Its essence is as follows. Based on the matrix of subjective similarity (the distance between the analyzed objects), a geometric space of the minimum possible dimension is reconstructed, in which the distances between the coordinate points corresponding to the analyzed objects are similar to the subjective distances of the similarity matrix.

• Mathematically, the multidimensional scaling procedure consists in determining the coordinate projections of points onto some coordinate axes, based on the known distances between points.

• Based on the found loadings of each word for each of the selected factor-axes of the semantic space, the coordinates of these words in the semantic space were reconstructed.

Factor 1

• Factor 1

• named "size"(eagle, goose on one pole, robin, sparrow, blue parrot on the other).

• Factor 2 got the name “savagery”(eagle, jay, sparrow, robin) in opposition to poultry (chicken, duck, goose).

• The semantic distance between two objects will be determined by the distances between two coordinate points of these values ​​in two-dimensional space, and calculated using the formula:

• D(semantic distance) =

• (x1 – x2)2 + (y1 – y2)2

Association experiment

• The most developed technique for semantic analysis.

• Discussed in detail in the works of J. Deese (1962), Dixon and Horton (1968), Creelman (1965).

• An analysis of the psychological nature of the processes underlying associations is given in the works of A.A. Leontyeva, L.B. Itelson, A.A. Brudny, B.A. Ermolaeva, V.F. Petrenko et al.

General scheme of the experiment:

• General scheme of the experiment:

• the subject is presented with the word stimulus and asked to give the first associations that come to mind

An associative experiment is usually carried out on large samples, and based on the associations given by the subjects, a table of the frequency distribution of reaction words to each stimulus word is constructed.

• Sample: 355 people

• The measure of semantic proximity (distance) of a pair of words is the degree of coincidence in the distribution of answers.

• That is, the degree of similarity of objects of analysis is established through the similarity of the associations data on them.

• This value in the works of different authors can be called: “intersection coefficient”, “association coefficient”, “overlap measure”.

raspberries, strawberry And sweet

• According to the results of the associative experiment, the words that were semantically close to the word “berry” were: raspberries, strawberry And sweet, then currants, cherries and rowan. The word “juice” is characterized by the closest semantic similarity.

Possible as

• Possible as free association experiment, where the subject is not limited in choosing answers, and directed association experiment, where its associative flow is limited by instruction to the framework of a certain grammatical class.

Associations are divided into paradigmatic syntagmatic

• Associations are divided into paradigmatic(reaction words and stimulus words from the same grammatical class: father-mother, chair-table, etc.) and syntagmatic(stimulus words and reaction words from different grammatical classes: car-driving, smoking-bad, etc.)

Advantages

• - simplicity, ease of use, because can be simultaneously carried out on large groups of subjects;

• - the ability to identify unconscious components, because subjects work with meaning in the “usage mode”;

• - associative technique reflects both the cognitive structures behind linguistic meanings and the individual characteristics of the subjects, their personal meanings.

Flaws

• sensitivity to phonological and syntactic similarity (use of speech stamps, cliches).

Semantic differential method

Charles Osgood.

• Developed in 1955 a group of American psychologists led by Charles Osgood.

• Originally used for research mechanisms of synesthesia.

• Widely used in research related to perception And behavior person, with analysis social attitudes, personal meanings.

• The SD method is a combination of procedures scaling and method controlled associations.

• The SD method measures connotative meaning. These are states that follow the perception of a stimulus symbol and necessarily precede meaningful operations with symbols (Osgood, 1957).
• An analogue of this in Soviet psychology is the concept of “personal meaning”, as the meaning of meaning for the subject (A.A. Leontiev, 1965; A.N. Leontiev, 1975).

• In the SD method, measured objects (concepts, images, characters, etc.) are assessed on a number of bipolar graded scales (three-, five-, seven-point) scales, the poles of which are specified using verbal antonyms.

Advantages of the SD method

• Advantages of the SD method
• Compactness (unlike the associative method).
• Ease of data processing (numerically presented standardized data easily amenable to statistical processing).
• The possibility of associations based on the principle of rhyming cliches, rhyming associations, i.e. associations caused not by the similarity of the content plan, but by the similarity of the expression plan.

Disadvantages of the SD method

• Disadvantages of the SD method

• The selected scales may impose on the subject divisions of the studied material that are not significant for him.

Data processing

• Concept scores on individual scales correlate with each other. With the help of factor analysis, it is possible to identify bundles of highly correlated scales and group them into factors.

• Ch. Ozgood considered the psychological mechanism that ensures the interconnection and grouping of scales into factors senesthesia.

• American psychologist L. Marx (1975) considered synesthesia as a universal form of prelinguistic categorization that provides generalization at the level of the organism.

A measure of the proximity of the objects under study in the SD method is the similarity of assessment profiles given on SD scales. For example, let’s consider three profiles obtained using the SD method “Evaluation of speech properties” according to the factor of emotional expressiveness, expression

• The figure shows that the first profile (*) differs significantly in estimates from the second and third profiles (@, +). And the last two profiles are similar to each other.

Factors are a form of generalization of antonym adjectives. Grouping scales into factors allows you to move from describing objects using features specified by scales (polar profile method) to a more capacious description using a smaller set of category factors.

The object's loadings for each of the selected factors are determined as the arithmetic mean of the object's ratings on the scales included in this factor.

• Mathematically, the construction of semantic space is a transition from a higher-dimensional basis to a lower-dimensional basis (features specified by scales) to a lower-dimensional basis (category-factors).

• Geometrically, the axes of semantic space are category factors (orthogonal, independent of each other).

• Connotative meanings of objects (emotionally rich, weakly structured and little realized forms of generalization) are specified as coordinate points or vectors within this space. These points are reconstructed based on knowledge of their projections on the factor axes (in other words, these are the factor loadings of the object for each factor).

• In his studies, Ozgood (1962) scaled concepts from a wide variety of conceptual classes and identified three universal categorization factors that are identical among representatives of different linguistic cultures, people of different educational levels, and even in patients with schizophrenia compared with healthy subjects.

Three universal factors by Charles Ozgood

• Activity

• Force

• Grade

Types of diabetes

The following trends can be identified in the development of the SD method:

• The transition from the construction of universal semantic spaces, differentiating vocabulary from a wide variety of class concepts, to the construction of particular semantic spaces.
• Expanding the means of describing the analyzed objects, using non-verbal, in particular visual, contrasts to construct scales.
• The transition from the construction of spaces based on group average data of randomly selected subjects to the construction of semantic spaces characterizing a group of subjects united by a controlled characteristic (gender, age, social class, etc.), or to the construction of semantic spaces reflecting the differential psychological aspects of personality the subject, his cognitive style.