Classification of methods of scientific and pedagogical research. Methods of pedagogical research and their classification
METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC AND PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH
Research method – the path of knowledge and awareness of the most general and widely operating laws of reality, objective reality.
In order for a researcher to solve a given problem, a set of methods, means and techniques of scientific knowledge, i.e. methods of scientific knowledge, is necessary.
To solve specific problems of studying the characteristics of the human psyche and behavior in the pedagogical process, it is used many methods have been researched. Methods must be chosen adequately the essence of the subject being studied and the product to be obtained; adequate to the task. That is, it is necessary to coordinate the methods with the nature of the phenomenon being studied.
Research methods are grouped according to various criteria: according to the level of penetration into the essence, a group is distinguished methods of empirical research based on experience, practice, experiment, and theoretical research methods, associated with abstraction from sensory reality, construction of models, penetration into the essence of what is being studied (history, theory).
The main research methods are observation and experiment. They can be considered general scientific methods. There are many others specific to the social sciences: conversation method, method of studying processes and products of activities, questioning method, testing method, etc.
How methods or means of concretizing and implementing the research method are used specific techniques psychological research. For example, if testing is a research method, then specific tests are used as methods: Cattell’s questionnaire, Eysenck’s questionnaire, etc.
Empirical methods:
1) observation is one of the most common and also the most accessible method of studying pedagogical practice. scientific observation is a specially organized perception of the object under study in natural conditions: a) tasks are determined, objects are identified, observation schemes are drawn up; b) the results are necessarily recorded; c) the received data is processed.
To increase efficiency, observation must be long-term, systematic, versatile, objective and widespread. There are also disadvantages: the observation does not reveal the inside of ped.phenomena; it is impossible to ensure complete objectivity of the information. Therefore, obs. Most often used at the early stages of research in combination with other methods.
2) survey methods:
Conversation - an independent or additional research method used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during observation. The conversation is conducted according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting issues that require clarification. The conversation is conducted in a free form without recording the interlocutor’s answers. A type of conversation is interviewing, introduced into pedagogy from sociology.
Questioning - method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed provide written answers to the questions.
Interviewing the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, responses are recorded openly.
The effectiveness of conversations, interviews and questionnaires largely depends on the content and structure of the questions asked. The conversation plan, interview and questionnaire are a list of questions (questionnaire). Stages of compiling a questionnaire:
Determining the nature of the information that needs to be obtained;
Drawing up an approximate series of questions that should be asked;
Drawing up the first plan of the questionnaire;
Its preliminary verification through a trial study;
Correction of the questionnaire and its final editing.
3) studying the products of students’ activities : written, graphic, creative and test works, drawings, drawings, details, notebooks in individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide the necessary information about the student’s personality, his attitude to work and the achieved level of skills in a particular area.
4) Studying school documentation(personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.
5 ) ped experiment method – the main research method in pedagogy and psychology (as well as observation; general scientific). a specially organized test of a particular method or method of work to identify its pedagogical effectiveness. A pedagogical experiment is a research activity with the aim of studying cause-and-effect relationships in pedagogical phenomena, which involves experimental modeling of a pedagogical phenomenon and the conditions for its occurrence; active influence of the researcher on the pedagogical phenomenon; measuring response, results of pedagogical influence and interaction; repeated reproducibility of pedagogical phenomena and processes.
The following stages of the experiment are distinguished:
theoretical(statement of the problem, definition of the goal, object and subject of research, its tasks and hypotheses);
methodical(development of research methodology and its plan, program, methods for processing the results obtained);
the experiment itself- conducting a series of experiments (creating experimental situations, observing, managing the experience and measuring the reactions of the subjects);
analytical- quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained facts, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.
A distinction is made between a natural experiment (under the conditions of the normal educational process) and a laboratory experiment - the creation of artificial conditions for testing, for example, a particular teaching method, when individual students are isolated from others. The most commonly used experiment is a natural experiment. It can be long-term or short-term.
A pedagogical experiment can be ascertaining, establishing only the real state of affairs in the process, or transformative (developing), when it is purposefully organized to determine the conditions (methods, forms and content of education) for the development of the personality of a schoolchild or children's group. A transformative experiment requires control groups for comparison. The difficulties of the experimental method are that it is necessary to have excellent command of the technique of its implementation; special delicacy, tact, and scrupulousness on the part of the researcher are required, and the ability to establish contact with the subject.
Theoretical methods:
1) modeling – reproduction of the characteristics of some object on another object specially created for their study. The second of the objects is called a model of the first (minimal in size, reproducing the original).
There are also mental models called idealized.
2) idealized model – any theoretical idea developed as a result of observations and experiments.
3) Literature Study makes it possible to find out which aspects and problems have already been sufficiently well studied, which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved:
- compiling a bibliography- a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;
- abstracting - a condensed summary of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;
- note-taking- keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is highlighting the main ideas and provisions of the work;
- ;annotation- a brief record of the general content of the book or article;
- citation- verbatim recording of expressions, factual or numerical data contained in a literary source.
Mathematical methods in pedagogy they are used to process data obtained by survey and experimental methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena being studied:
- Registration- a method of identifying the presence of a certain quality in each group member and a general count of the number of those who have or do not have this quality (for example, the number of active workers in class and passive ones).
- Ranging(or the rank assessment method) requires arranging the collected data in a certain sequence (usually in descending or increasing order of some indicators) and, accordingly, determining the place in this series of each of the subjects (for example, compiling a list of the most preferred classmates).
- Scaling- introduction of digital indicators in the assessment of individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, subjects are asked questions, answering which they must choose one of the specified assessments. For example, in the question about engaging in any activity in your free time, you need to choose one of the evaluative answers: I am interested, I do it regularly, I do it irregularly, I don’t do anything.
Statistical methods are used when processing mass material - determining the average values of the obtained indicators: arithmetic average (for example, determining the number of errors in test work of the control and experimental groups)
Research method– a way of understanding the reality under study, which allows you to solve problems and achieve the goal of search activity.
Theoretical: analysis, content analysis, retrospective analysis, abstraction, analogy, systematization, specification, modeling
Empirical: survey methods (questioning, conversation, interviewing), experiment, observation, sociometric methods, trainings
Traditional pedagogical methods
We will call traditional methods that modern pedagogy inherited from the researchers who stood at the origins of pedagogical science.
Observation- the most accessible and widespread method of studying teaching practice.
Disadvantages of observation: it does not reveal the internal aspects of pedagogical phenomena; when using this method, it is impossible to ensure complete objectivity of information.
Learning from experience- another long-used method of pedagogical research. In a broad sense, it means organized cognitive activity aimed at establishing historical connections of education, identifying the general, sustainable in educational systems.
Using this method, ways to solve specific problems are analyzed and balanced conclusions are drawn about the advisability of their use in new conditions. Therefore, this method is often called historical.
Studying the products of student creativity- homework and class work in all academic subjects, essays, abstracts, reports - will tell an experienced researcher a lot.
Conversations- a traditional method of pedagogical research. Conversations, dialogues, and discussions reveal people’s attitudes, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions. A type of conversation, its new modification - interviewing, transferred to pedagogy from sociology. Interviewing usually involves
public discussion; the researcher adheres to pre-prepared questions and poses them in a certain sequence.
Pedagogical experiment- this is a scientifically based experience in transforming the pedagogical process in precisely taken into account conditions. Unlike methods that only record what already exists, experimentation in pedagogy has a creative nature. By experimentation, for example, new techniques, methods, forms, and systems of educational activities make their way into practice.
A pedagogical experiment can cover a group of students, a class, a school, or several schools. The decisive role in the experiment belongs to scientific hypothesis. The study of a hypothesis is a form of transition from observing phenomena to revealing the laws of their development. Reliability of experimental findings
directly depends on compliance with the experimental conditions.
Depending on the purpose pursued by the experiment, there are:
1) ascertaining experiment, in which existing pedagogical phenomena are studied;
2) verification, clarifying experiment, when a hypothesis created in the process of understanding a problem is tested;
3) creative, transformative, formative experiment, in the process of which new pedagogical phenomena are constructed.
Depending on the location, a distinction is made between natural and laboratory pedagogical experiments.
Natural represents a scientifically organized experience of testing the put forward hypothesis without disrupting the educational process. Subjects of a natural experiment
Most often they become plans and programs, textbooks and teaching aids, techniques and methods of teaching and upbringing, forms of the educational process.
Laboratory is used when it is necessary to check a particular question or if, in order to obtain the necessary data, it is necessary to ensure particularly careful observation of the subject, while the experiment is transferred to special research conditions.
Pedagogical testing
Testing- this is a targeted examination, the same for all subjects, conducted under strictly controlled conditions, which allows for objective measurement of the studied characteristics of the pedagogical process. Testing differs from other methods of examination in accuracy, simplicity, accessibility,
possibility of automation. If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we must first of all point out the use achievement tests. Widely used basic skills tests, such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training™ - identifying the degree of mastery of knowledge and skills in all academic disciplines.
Final test contains a large number of questions and is offered after studying a large section of the curriculum. There are two types of tests: speed And power. In speed tests, the test taker usually does not have enough time to answer all the questions; according to power tests, everyone has such an opportunity.
Methods for studying collective phenomena
The processes of upbringing, education, and training are collective (group) in nature. The most commonly used methods for studying them are mass surveys of participants in these processes, conducted according to a specific plan. These questions can be oral (interview) or written (survey). Scaling and sociometric techniques and comparative studies are also widely used.
Questionnaire- a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. Teachers were attracted by the survey due to the possibility of quick mass surveys, de-
superiority of the methodology and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.
Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in pedagogical research: open, requiring an independent response, and closed, in which you need to choose one of the ready-made answers; nominal, requiring the test subject's surname to be indicated, and anonymous, doing without it; full And trimmed; propaedeutic And control etc. Widely used method of studying group differentiation(sociometric method), which allows you to analyze intra-collective relationships. The method allows you to make “slices” that characterize various stages of relationship formation, types of authority, and the state of the asset. Perhaps its main advantage is the ability to present the obtained data in a visual form using so-called matrices and sociograms, as well as quantitative processing of the results.
Quantitative methods in pedagogy
Quality- this is a set of properties that indicate what an object is, what it is. Quantity determines dimensions, is identified with measure, number. It is necessary to distinguish two main directions in the use of quantitative methods in pedagogy: the first - for processing the results of observations and experiments, the second - for "modelling, diagnostics, forecasting, computerization
educational process. The methods of the first group are well known and widely used.
Statistical method contains the following specific techniques.
Registration- identifying a certain quality in phenomena of a given class and calculating the quantity based on the presence or absence of this quality.
Ranging- arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence (decreasing or increasing recorded indicators), determining the place in this series of objects being studied (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of missed classes, etc.).
Scaling- assignment of points or other digital indicators to the characteristics being studied. This achieves greater certainty. An increasingly powerful transformative means of pedagogical
research is becoming modeling. A scientific model is a mentally represented or materially realized system that adequately reflects the subject of research and is capable of replacing it so that studying the model allows one to obtain new information about this object. Modeling is
method of creating and studying models. The main advantage of modeling is the integrity of the information presentation. Modeling has been successfully used to solve the following problems:
Optimization of the structure of the educational process;
Improving the planning of the educational process;
Management of cognitive activity, educational process;
Diagnostics, forecasting, training design.
Plan
1. The concept of “research method”. Classification of research methods.
2. Methods of working with scientific information.
3. Theoretical and empirical methods of pedagogical research.
4. The role of creativity in research activities. Methods for creative solution of research problems.
Literature
1. Weindorf-Sysoeva M.E. Execution technology and design of research work. Educational and methodological manual. – M.: TsGL, 2006. – 96 p.
2. Zagvyazinsky, V.I. Methodology and methods of psychological and pedagogical research / V.I. Zagvyazinsky., R. Atakhanov. – M., 2005.– 208 p.
3. Research activities of students; textbook / Author's composition. T.P. Salnikova. – M.: TC Sfera, 2005. – 96 p.
4. Pedagogy: Textbook for students of pedagogical educational institutions / V.A. Slastenin, I.F. Isaev, A.I. Mishchenko, E.N. Shiyanov. - M.: Shkola-Press, 1997. - 512 p.
5. Tyapkin, B. G. Scientific literature. - TSB
1. The concept of “research method”. Classification of research methods.
In accordance with the logic of scientific research, a research methodology is being developed. It is a set of methods, the combination of which makes it possible to carry out research with the greatest reliability. The use of a number of methods allows for a comprehensive study of the problem under study, all its aspects and parameters.
Research methods are ways of understanding objective reality. Using methods, the researcher obtains information about the subject being studied. Each science uses its own methods, which reflect the characteristics of the phenomena being studied. Methods of pedagogical research are determined by the following features:
The results of training and education depend on the simultaneous influence of many causes and conditions. The ambiguous nature of pedagogical processes limits the possibilities of using methods known in science. Therefore, pedagogical research uses a combination of methods.
Pedagogical processes are characterized by their uniqueness. The teacher-researcher does not have the opportunity to conduct a “pure” experiment. Repeated research never succeeds in reproducing the same conditions and “material.”
In pedagogical research, the main trend is taken into account, and conclusions are formulated in a generalized form.
Pedagogical research should be carried out without prejudice to the physical and mental health of children, the process of their education and upbringing.
The ultimate goal of pedagogical research is to establish patterns in pedagogical processes and phenomena, that is, an objectively existing stable connection between pedagogical phenomena that ensures their existence, functioning and progressive development.
Methods of pedagogical research - ways and means of understanding the objective reality of pedagogical phenomena reveal the procedural part of pedagogical research, which involves drawing up a research plan, describing the methods and techniques of data collection, methods of their analysis, as well as the following interrelated and interdependent stages:
Stage of working with scientific information (goal: find information about the object of research and process it);
Stage of transformation of received information (goal: modify, transform the found knowledge about the object of research);
The stage of creative resolution of the research problem (goal: independently discover the patterns inherent in the object under study).
The structure of pedagogical research is determined by various combinations of the listed stages, which can be carried out in different orders with certain repetitions and changes. Please note that each stage has a specific goal. The method of achieving the goal is called a method. Therefore, carrying out pedagogical research involves the use of the following methods:
Methods of working with scientific information: information search methods; m.
Methods of scientific knowledge: observation, comparison, analysis, synthesis, search for analogies, deduction, induction, generalization, abstraction, modeling, concretization, method of putting forward hypotheses, method of generating ideas. Also distinguished special pedagogical research methods: observation method, survey methods, pedagogical consultation, pedagogical experiment, etc.
Methods for creatively solving research problems: method of structural analysis of the research problem; the method of “heuristic questions”, “brainstorming”, the method of analogies, “synectics”, the “If only...” method, the figurative picture method, etc.
2. Methods of working with scientific information
Scientific information reflects the objective laws of nature, society and thinking adequately to the modern state of science.
To methods of working with scientific information methods includeinformation search; m methods of processing received information; methods of systematization and storage of scientific information.
1). Search for scientific information.
Scientific information is presented in scientific literature. B. G. Tyapkin offers the following definition of n scientific literature: “a set of written and printed works that are created as a result of scientific research or theoretical generalizations and are distributed in order to inform specialists about the latest achievements of science, the progress and results of research. Regardless of the specific branch of knowledge, the subject of scientific literature is science itself - ideas and facts, laws and categories discovered by scientists. Scientific work is not considered completed if its results are not fixed in writing for transmission to others (if a question arises about assigning priority to a scientific discovery, publication of scientific works is necessary).”
B. G. Tyapkin draws attention to the fact that p Ancient scientific works were created in the genres of treatises, dialogues, reasonings, “teachings,” “travels,” biographies, and even in poetic genres (odes and poems). Gradually, these forms were replaced by new forms: monographs, reviews, articles, reports, reviews, essays, abstracts, abstracts, abstracts of reports and communications distributed in the form of publications appeared.
Let's look at a brief description of the main scientific texts:
Monograph- a scientific work of one or more authors sharing a common point of view, in which a particular problem or topic is explored with the greatest completeness. The monograph summarizes and analyzes the literature on this issue, putting forward new hypotheses and solutions that contribute to the development of science. A monograph is usually accompanied by extensive bibliographic lists and notes, which can be used as a starting point when compiling a list of references on the research problem.
Brochure- non-periodic printed work of small volume (in international practice, no less than 5 and no more than 48 pages); small volume, usually of a popular scientific nature.
Collection of scientific papers - a collection containing research materials from scientific institutions, educational institutions or societies.
Article- a small scientific work in which the problem is considered with justification of its relevance, theoretical and applied significance, with a description of the methodology and results of the research. When carrying out pedagogical research, you can turn to the journals “Pedagogy”, “Education of Schoolchildren”, “Public Education”, “Questions of Psychology”. It must be remembered that the latest annual issue of the journal offers a list of articles that were published in this journal during the year.
Abstracts of the report- a brief summary of the content of the scientific report.
Tutorial- an educational book designed to expand, deepen, and better assimilate the knowledge provided for by the curriculum and presented in textbooks; complements or replaces (partially or completely) the textbook.
The search for the necessary literature is a long labor. Its significance is enormous, because the quality of educational and research work will depend on the completeness of the study of published material.
It is best to start working in the library by consulting the encyclopedia and special dictionaries. Encyclopedia articles contain not only brief information on the essence of a particular problem, but also a list of the main works published on it.
Having received general information on the research topic, you can already head to library catalogs.
A library catalog is a set of bibliographic records for documents arranged according to certain rules, revealing the composition and content of the collection of a library or information center. The library catalog can operate in card or machine-readable form.
There are the following types of catalogues: alphabetical, subject, systematic, catalogs of new arrivals.
To the alphabetical catalog apply if they know the name of the required source and the name of its author.
Subject catalog - a library catalog in which bibliographic records are arranged in alphabetical order by subject headings.
In the systematic catalog The titles of the books are grouped by headings and sub-headings, but the headings themselves, unlike the subject catalogue, are arranged not alphabetically, but according to the discipline system.
In the library, you need to carefully study the catalogs. Laconic index cards carry a wealth of information: the name of the author, the title of the book, its subtitle, the scientific institution that prepared the publication, the name of the publisher, the year the book was published, the number of pages. Copy from the catalog card accurate and complete bibliographic information about the book or article. It is better to make your notes on separate cards. Based on these cards obtained during bibliographic reading, a bibliographic list is compiled.
A bibliography is a sequence of bibliographic descriptions of sources that the researcher used in his work. Let's consider the basic rules for compiling a bibliographic description.
1. Bibliographic description of a book by one author:
Andreev V.I. Heuristic programming of educational and research activities / V.I. Andreev. – M.: Higher. School, 1981. – 240 p.
2. Bibliographic description of a book by two or more authors:
Pidkasisty P.I. Independent activity of students in learning / P.I. Pidkasisty, V.I. Korotyaev. – M, 1978. – 76 p.
3. Bibliographic description of a magazine or newspaper article:
Amirova S.S. Self-organization of personality in the learning process / S.S. Amirova // Pedagogy. – 1993.– No. 5.– P.50-56.
4. Bibliographic description of the collection of scientific works:
Psychological problems of personal self-realization: Sat. scientific tr. / Ed. O.G.Kukosyan. – Krasnodar, 2001. – 259 p.
5. Bibliographic description of the dissertation abstract:
Fedotova N.A. Development of research competence of high school students in the context of specialized education: Abstract of thesis. diss. …. Ph.D. ped. Sciences / N.A. Fedotova. – Ulan-Ude, 2010. – 24 p.
In the course of carrying out research work, several methods are used to construct a bibliographic list: alphabetical, thematic, chronological.
The alphabetical method involves constructing a bibliographic list alphabetically by the names of authors and titles of sources (if the author is not indicated). It is in the alphabetical way that the bibliographic list of scientific works is compiled.
When it is necessary to reflect the development of a scientific idea in stages, a bibliographic list is compiled according to chronology.
But when working on a study, sometimes the bibliographic list is grouped not alphabetically, but by headings, each of which reflects a list of sources on a separate aspect of the study of the problem.
It should be noted that encyclopedias and reference books that the researcher consulted in the course of his work are listed in a separate list.
2).Reading scientific literature
To successfully work with educational and scientific literature, you must have a reading culture. Reading culture includes: regularity of reading, speed of reading, types of reading, ability to work with information retrieval systems and library catalogs, rationality of reading, ability to keep various types of records.
To master as large a layer of literary material as possible, you need to be able to read quickly. Reading speed is not an end in itself. It must be accompanied by the quality of assimilation of the content of the text, its perceptibility, comprehension and memorization of the most essential information.
It is important for a researcher to be able to determine the purposes of reading and master different types of reading.
The following reading purposes are distinguished:
· information retrieval - find the necessary information;
· assimilate - understand information and logic of reasoning;
· analytical-critical - comprehend the text, determine your attitude towards it;
· creative - based on understanding the information, supplement and develop it.
Most often, experts talk about three main types of reading:
1. Search (browsing, approximate): used for preliminary acquaintance with the book (article). The main task is to discover whether the book contains the necessary information. To do this, you usually look at the table of contents, abstract, preface, and conclusion. Sometimes such reading is quite enough to get an idea of the book, the main ideas of the author, and some of the features of the work.
If you try to determine the sequence of actions for this type of reading, you will get the following:
a) highlight headings and sections in order to get a general idea of the content of the structure of the text. A heading or section can be presented in the form of a question. For example, the heading “The education system as a condition for the development of personality” can be transformed into the question “What should be the education system in order to form a growing person as a person?”;
b) look at the first and last paragraphs in order to get a general idea of the content;
c) skim through the entire text;
d) pose questions to the text you are about to read: “What do I know about this topic?” “What do I have to learn?” By looking at subheadings and headings and transforming them into questions, your reading becomes active, the purpose of reading becomes clear, and a connection appears between new information and existing knowledge.
2. Selective reading (introductory, summary) used for secondary reading if there is a need to understand some specific information in more detail. In this case, we pay attention only to those sections of the book (text) that we need.
3. In-depth reading (studying, analytical, critical) -his main task is to understand and remember what he read. At the same time, we pay attention to details, analyze information, evaluate it, critically comprehend and evaluate what we read. This is the most serious type of reading, requiring a thoughtful attitude.
For effective reading, you can suggest the following sequence of actions:
· Browse and Review: Review the Introduction, Table of Contents, and Summary to get an overview.
· Analysis - think about why you are reading this particular book, what motivates your choice.
· Active reading - as you read, highlight the main ideas, formulate them in writing. Write down the questions that arise. After finishing your work, check how well you have understood what you read.
· Development of thought - try to express your own point of view regarding what you read.
All types of reading are interconnected and you need to be able to read in different ways. The effectiveness of reading is determined by the degree of assimilation of the material and the amount of time spent on it. Reading quickly is an important skill for a researcher. The average reading speed is considered to be 200-250 words per minute. However, stories are known to people who read very quickly (O. Balzac, A. Edison, etc.). John Kennedy, for example, read at a speed of approximately 1,200 words per minute.
In order to read quickly, you need training in special exercises. But today you can increase your speed if you pay attention to the following recommendations. They will help you avoid some of the shortcomings that we often make when reading:
· read without articulation, do not pronounce words, internal speech significantly reduces reading speed;
· read from top to bottom, sliding your eyes along the center of the page, and not along the lines;
· read not in words, but in whole lines, expanding your peripheral vision;
· read without regression, that is, do not return to words and phrases already read;
· read carefully, lack of attention when reading leads to the fact that reading occurs mechanically and the meaning of what is read does not reach consciousness;
· read with interest, it is easy to read and remember what is interesting to us, so motivate yourself when reading.
2). Methods for recording received information
Information becomes a resource if it can be distributed in time and space and used to solve a certain range of problems. Information becomes a resource from the moment it is recorded on a medium (paper, electronic).
Primary recording of information can be done as follows: underlining in the book, notes in the margins. To make notes in the margins, you can use the following notation system:
! - very important;
? – doubtful, not clear;
v – the main thing is to pay attention;
Conclusion, summary, summary;
B – write out others.
You can also record information in the form of notes: plans, theses, notes.
A plan is a short program of some kind of presentation; a set of briefly formulated thoughts-headings in a compressed form represents the semantic structure of the text. The plan is the “skeleton” of the text; it compactly reflects the sequence of presentation of the material. An outline as a type of recording usually conveys the content of parts of the text in much more detail than the table of contents of a book or the subtitles of articles. Taking notes in the form of an outline is extremely important for recalling the content of what you read. However, it should be noted that the plan, as a rule, says only what is said in the source, but does not provide information about what is said and how, i.e., it sparingly mentions the actual content and its layout. When making a plan when reading a text, first of all, try to determine the boundaries of thoughts. Mark these places in the book immediately. Give the necessary passages headings, formulating the corresponding point of the plan. Record any plans in such a way that they can be easily covered at one glance.
The advantages of the plan are that it is the shortest recording, which reflects the sequence of presentation and summarizes what has been read; restores the content of the source in memory; replaces notes and theses; helps in compiling records, etc.
The formulation of the plan only names what needs to be said. What needs to be said can be formulated in a thesis.
PlanIt can be simple, when the main thoughts are recorded in the points of the plan, and complex, with each point being detailed in sub-points.
Actions when drawing up a plan can be as follows:
1. Look through the text and divide it into complete passages. Paragraphs of text can serve as reference points, although the semantic boundary does not always follow them.
2. Determine the main idea of each part, based on key words and phrases, and formulate it.
3. Clarify the wording and write it down consistently. If you ask a question for each semantic part and write it down, you will have a question plan.
For example, follow the fragment from the book by E.N. Ilyin “The Art of Communication” how the main idea of the passage is determined and the point of the plan is formulated.
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Book fragment |
Plan item |
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“The marks in literature are not at all the same as, say, in physics and chemistry. I am learning to listen to the student in Tolstoy’s style, that is, to hear him and my inner voice... To catch false enthusiasm, pre-prepared ostentatious conviction, someone else’s” blush", a personal attitude, behind which "the opinions of others are only sacred." What does the student think about when he speaks? Does he say what he thinks? Or is he just thinking about what to say for a good grade? I give a high score to even a timid attempt to say something, to clarify ", add, when others are silent. The desire to think is already a result. I ask the “difficult" about difficult things - it’s easier to get them to work this way.” |
Ethicsmarks |
Abstracts- these are provisions that briefly outline an idea or one of the main thoughts or provisions of the book. They can be expressed in the form of affirmation or negation. Theses make it possible to reveal the content and focus on what needs to be remembered or said.
Actions when drawing up abstracts can be the following:
1. In each paragraph of the text, highlight key sentences that carry semantic load
2. Based on the highlighted sentences, formulate the main idea of the paragraph in a common sentence.
3. Classify the main ideas and briefly state what they convey.
Having selected arguments (facts, quotes, etc.) for each thesis and presented them, you will receive the text of your speech, a response to the topic proposed for the seminar. An example of how you can formulate a thesis.
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Fragment from the book by V.F. Shatalova "Teach everyone, teach everyone" |
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“If there is one tape recorder, listening to the recordings is entrusted to a student in a parallel class outside of class time. This honorable work is entrusted only to the best students no more than once every academic quarter. Time consumption is 15-20 minutes. If there are two tape recorders, children from a parallel class listen to the recordings directly in class during written work. On this day, they are given "automatic fives" for their written work, which differ in color from other grades in the open knowledge record sheet. Sometimes the teacher listens to some of the answers. Practice has shown: the guys are very strict judges, and in all the years there has not been a single case of a liberal attitude towards the mistakes of their comrades." |
Role participation of children in the learning process, for example, in assessing work results |
Extracts.The explanatory dictionary says: “To write out means to copy some necessary, important passage from a book, magazine, to make selections” (from the word “select”). The whole difficulty of writing out lies precisely in the ability to find and select what you need from one or more texts. Extracts are especially convenient when you need to collect material from different sources. Extracts are made after the text has been read in its entirety and is understood as a whole. Beware of excessive automatic writing of quotations in place of creative development and analysis of the text. You can write it out verbatim (quotes) or freely, when the author’s thoughts are expressed in his own words.
Often, notes in the form of a plan and theses are not enough to fully assimilate the material. In this case, they resort to note-taking, i.e. to processing information by collapsing it.
Abstractis called a brief sequential summary of the contents of an article, book, lecture. It is based on an outline, theses, extracts, quotes. An abstract, unlike abstracts, reproduces not only the thoughts of the original, but also the connection between them; the abstract reflects not only what is said in the work, but also what asserted and proven.
There are various types and methods of note-taking. One of the most common is the so-called textual note, which is a sequential recording of the text of a book or article. Such a summary accurately conveys the logic of the material and maximum information.
Notes can be planned, written on the basis of a drawn up plan for an article or book. Each question in the plan corresponds to a certain part of the outline. It is convenient in this case to use a question plan. On the left side of the page you pose the problems raised in the book in the form of questions, and on the right side of the page you give answers to them. For example, a question-and-answer summary “Styles of pedagogical communication”
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1. What is pedagogical communication? |
The process of organizing, establishing, and developing communication, mutual understanding, and interaction between the teacher and students, generated by the goals and content of their joint activities, is multifaceted. |
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2. What styles of software are there? |
Authoritative (the teacher’s sole decision on all issues of life and learning, dictatorial tactics and guardianship, persistent conflicts, inadequate self-esteem of the student). Democratic (subjective interaction, mutual acceptance, open, free discussion of problems, cooperation). Conniving (formal performance by the teacher of his duties, indifference, disinterest of the teacher, low discipline and academic performance). |
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3. How to establish appropriate relationships with students? |
The influence of the teacher's personality; understanding; empathy, pedagogical tact and authority; adequacy of assessments of student behavior and activities; pedagogical requirement. |
It is very convenient to use a schematic recording of what you read. Drawing up outlines and diagrams serves not only for memorizing the material. Such work becomes a means of developing the ability to highlight the most important, essential in the educational material, to classify information.
The most common are the “family tree” and “spider” type schemes. In the “family tree” diagram, the main components of a more complex concept are highlighted, keywords, etc., and are arranged in a “top-down” sequence - from the general concept to its particular components.
In a “spider” type scheme, the name of the topic or question is written and enclosed in an oval, which makes up the “spider body”. Then you need to think about which of the concepts included in the topic are the main ones and write them down on the diagram so that they form “spider legs.” In order to strengthen their stability, you need to attach to each “leg” key words or phrases that serve as a support for memory.
Schemes can be simple, in which the most basic concepts are written down without explanation. This scheme is used if the material does not cause difficulties in reproduction. In the diagram you can use fragments of text, explanations, explanations, extracts. This entry allows you to better navigate the material when answering.
You can use a mixed (combined) method of note-taking. Such notes are a combination of all (or several) of the listed methods.
With any type of note-taking, it is important not to forget that:
1. Entries should be neat, as much text as possible should be placed on the page, this improves its visibility.
2. It is useful to divide a record; for this purpose the following is used:
Subheadings,
Paragraph indents,
Whitespace lines.
All this is organized by the recording.
3. You need to use design tools:
Make underlines in the text of the note, and cross-outs in the margins of the notebook (for example, vertical),
Conclude laws, basic concepts, rules, etc. in frames
Use different colors when writing,
Write in different fonts.
4. The pages of the notebook for notes can be numbered and a table of contents can be made. In this case, you can quickly find the information you need.
3). Systematization and storage of information
Select the necessary material collected while working with the source. It should be systematized and stored in a file cabinet of scientific articles, extracts, newspaper and magazine clippings. A fact, question, and theoretical propositions are recorded on the card. Above each extract, indicate the problem of the extract, as well as a bibliographic reference of the source (author's surname, book title, year of publication, page). Cards in the file cabinet are placed in certain categories. The most essential material should be stored, constantly updating it. This is facilitated by familiarity with new scientific, educational, methodological literature and periodical publications.
Modern computer technologies offer great opportunities for systematizing and storing information. So, on a computer you can organize the information space of your research work using rules.
3. Methods of theoretical and empirical pedagogical research
Research method - This is a method that allows you to solve problems and achieve the goal of the study.Using methods, the researcher obtains information about the subject being studied. Each science uses its own methods, which reflect the characteristics of the phenomena being studied.
The range of methods used in carrying out pedagogical research is quite wide. Traditionally, pedagogical research methods are divided into two groups: theoretical and empirical.
Theoretical methods(analysis and synthesis, generalization, abstraction, specification, modeling, etc.)are associated with mental penetration into the essence of the pedagogical phenomenon or process being studied, and the construction of models of their ideal states. Theoretical methods involve a deep analysis of facts, the disclosure of significant patterns, the formation of mental models, the use of hypotheses, etc.
Methods of empirical research(observation, survey methods, experiments, etc.)based on experience and practice. The essence empirical methods consists of recording and describing phenomena, facts, and visible connections between them.
Many research methods are used to solve specific problems.
T.P. Salnikova draws attention to the fact that the choice of methods for carrying out pedagogical research is determined by a system of rules and norms and is based on the following principles:
· set (complex) of research methods;
· their adequacy to the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the results expected to be obtained, and the capabilities of the researcher;
· prohibition of experiments and the use of research methods that are contrary to moral standards and can harm subjects.
Selected methods and methods of search activity that are adequate to the tasks make it possible to realize the idea and plan, test hypotheses, and solve the problems posed.
Empirical and theoretical methods of pedagogical research are interconnected and interdependent. Theoretical methods involve penetration into the essence of the process or phenomenon being studied and consist in their explanation, in the construction of an ideal construct for solving a pedagogical problem. And empirical methods make it possible to describe the state of solution of a pedagogical problem in modern educational practice; determine the possibility of practical testing of the designed theoretical construct for solving a pedagogical problem.
Let us consider the main characteristics and features of pedagogical research methods.
Theoretical methods of pedagogical research
Analysis -This is the mental selection of individual parts and connections based on the dismemberment of the whole. For example, when studying the uniqueness of the organization of the pedagogical process in developmental education classes, it is possible for analysis to isolate separately its goals, content, principles, methods, forms, means, control. After completing the analytical work, the need arises synthesis, combining the results of analysis in a common research system. Based on synthesis, the subject is recreated as a system of connections and interactions, highlighting the most significant of them.
V.I. Zagvyazinsky draws attention to the fact that analysis and synthesis are closely related methods of abstraction and concretization. Under abstraction understand the mental abstraction of any property or feature of an object from its other features, properties, connections for a deeper study. The limiting case of abstraction is idealization, as a result of which concepts are created about idealized, really non-existent objects. However, it is precisely these idealized objects that serve as models that make it possible to identify much more deeply and completely some connections and patterns that appear in many real objects. In pedagogy, it is also possible to create idealized objects, say “ideal student” (devoid of any shortcomings), “ideal teacher”, “ideal school”, etc. Concretization method in its logical nature it is the opposite of abstraction. It consists in taking into account the specifics and originality of the solution to the pedagogical problem under study with a specific child, with a specific group of students.
Simulation method also serves the task of constructing something new that does not yet exist in practice. The researcher, having studied the characteristic features of real processes, looks for their new combinations, makes their mental recomposition, i.e. models the required state of the system under study. Hypothetical models are created and on this basis recommendations and conclusions are made, which are then tested in practice. These, in particular, are the designed models of new types of educational institutions, for example, schools with multi-level education; and projected models for organizing educational processes, for example, the educational process in a gymnasium historical and legal specialized class.
Empirical methods of pedagogical research
1). Observation - one of the most common methods of pedagogical research. Observation means purposeful, according to a pre-developed plan, recording of those manifestations of personality or activity that interest the researcher.
Observation may be included not included. Participant observation assumes that the researcher himself, for a certain time, becomes a member of the group of children who became the object of study. If you become accepted by children as a member of their community, you will be able to learn so much about them in a way that no other method will allow you to do. Non-participant observation involves observation "from the outside." They also distinguish open observation, when children know that they are objects of study, and hidden, in which schoolchildren do not suspect that their behavior and activities are being monitored.
The advantages of observation as a research method include the fact that it allows you to record an event at the moment it occurs and obtain information about the real behavior of children (with hidden observation). The disadvantages of observation include the following:
The influence of the subjective factor on the interpretation of observation results (personal characteristics of the researcher, his attitudes, previous experience, emotional state),
When using open observation, the result is influenced by the fact that children know that we are being monitored, and the setting for “approved” behavior is triggered;
Observation requires a significant investment of time;
Not all phenomena can be studied using this research method; the scope of observation is limited.
Mandatory conditions for carrying out observation are the presence of a goal (what are you observing and why?), an observation plan and recording of its results in a diary, tables, matrices in which records are kept. For example, you are monitoring a child who is not accepted in the team. One possible reason for this may be the child’s increased anxiety, which complicates his life and becomes a serious emotional barrier in his communication with peers. In this case, the purpose of observation may be the following: to determine the child’s anxiety level. As an observation plan, you can use signs that express forms of “alarming” behavior:
· “plays the hero,” especially when comments are made to him;
· cannot resist “playing a role” in front of others;
· inclined to “play the fool”;
· too bold, takes unnecessary risks;
· take care to always be in agreement with the majority;
· imposed on others, easy to control;
· loves to be the center of attention;
· plays with children older than himself;
· brags in front of children;
· clowns around (pretends to be w uta)
· behaves noisily when the teacher is not around;
· imitates the hooligan antics of others.
· You can record observation data in the table:
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Signs of behavior |
Frequency of occurrence |
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Often |
Sometimes |
Never |
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Plays the "hero" |
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Plays a “role” in front of others |
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Tends to pretend to be a “fool”, etc. |
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Then the frequency of manifestations is summed up and only after summing up the results of the observation can a conclusion be made.
2). Survey methods
The survey method is becoming increasingly popular in the practice of educational research. Survey May be direct(conversation, interview) and indirect(questionnaire). They also distinguish group and individual survey, full-time and correspondence, oral and written.
Conversation - This is a method of obtaining information based on a dialogue between the researcher and the subject. The main condition for a successful conversation is establishing personal contacts with the child, creating a friendly atmosphere and trust. When a child sees an interested person who strives to understand him and help, does not criticize, does not judge, does not impose his point of view, but can simply listen or give practical advice, then you can count on the student’s sincerity. The conversation requires special flexibility and sensitivity, knowledge of the individual characteristics of the children, the ability to listen and understand the emotional state.
The conversation can be individual, group or collective. In any case, it requires serious preparation. It is necessary to think through the purpose of the conversation, determine the subject of the conversation, draw up a plan for its conduct, formulate questions, select problematic situations, conflicting points of view on the problem under discussion, etc. When setting the purpose of the conversation, you cannot limit yourself only to the objectives of your research. For schoolchildren it should be educational in nature. For example, during a conversation on the topic “How do we spend our free time?” The student, together with the guys, answered the questions “What time can be considered free?”, “Do we have a lot of free time?”, “What can you do in your free time?”, “Where can you go in your free time in our city?”, etc. Data obtained in interviews with children are recorded and compared with data obtained using other research methods.
The conversation is in the nature of a mutual exchange of information. In the case where the researcher only asks questions without expressing his opinion, we have business with interviewing.
If the survey is conducted in writing, we are talking about survey. The big advantage of questionnaires is that the study can cover any number of students, and the data obtained is quite easy to process. However, it should be borne in mind that compiling questionnaires is a complex process that requires professional knowledge, so it is better to use ready-made questionnaires.
According to the form, questionnaires can be divided into open, when the answer to the question posed is formulated by the students themselves, and closed, when a list of possible answer options is offered.
For example, open-ended survey questions:
What happens if education is made optional for teenagers?
What does it mean, in your opinion, to be happy?
What do you think a harmonious person is?
Closed questions:
1. Are you satisfied with your school achievements?
a) very pleased
b) happy
c) not entirely satisfied,
d) not happy
d) not happy at all.
2. When comparing yourself to others, you find that:
a) you are underestimated,
b) you don't worse than others
d) you are fit to be a leader.
A variant of semi-closed questions is used, in which the list of answer options ends with the word “other”. For example:
In my free time I most often
a) I’m walking,
b) I communicate with friends,
c) I read books,
d) I watch TV,
d) I draw,
e) other
Often, questionnaires use a dichotomous form of answers, when the child chooses one of two mutually exclusive answers, for example,
1. I get annoyed by teachers who can’t understand me.
a) true,
b) incorrect.
2. To me it can be difficult in unfamiliar company
a) yes,
b) no.
If you compose the questionnaire yourself, you should adhere to the following rules:
1. Survey questions should be relevant to the problem you are studying and the purpose of your survey.
2. The wording of the questions should be clear, understandable and understandable to the child, and correspond to his level of knowledge and life experience.
3. The proposed questions should ensure sincerity and truthfulness of the answers.
4. The questionnaire includes the most significant questions, the answers to which can only be obtained through a questionnaire.
3). The researcher is always interested in not the external side of the activity (action), but its internal essence (motive of the action, interests, views, assessments). Relationships reveal themselves only in a situation of choice, which is created by the experimenter with the help of various diagnostic techniques . With their help, group and personal attitudes, relationships to friends, to oneself, to the future, etc. are studied. Let's consider some techniques:
- Unfinished sentence :
UI always want to argue when...
For me school is...
A true teacher is one who...
In class I strive to...
- Unfinished story method:
“Returning home from school, I saw a homeless mongrel with a wounded paw near my entrance...”
- Drawing up a list of priorities: Arrange suggested concepts in order of importance for you:Appearance. Honesty. Success. Education. Family. Prestige. Freedom. Law-abiding. Property. Power. Health. Equality. Money. Creation.
- Choosing a life motto: Which life motto would you choose as your guiding idea?
· Fight, search, find and don’t give up.
· Live like everyone else.
· Beauty will save the world.
· Take care of your honor from a young age.
· You make yourself in this life only by yourself.
· Everything is achieved through training.
· Another motto (write)
- Choosing a role model: “Who are your role models in your life?
· historical figures,
· literary heroes.
· contemporaries."
- Drawing up a description of yourself:
· Write the words that, in your opinion, best describe you.
· Write a characteristic about yourself that you would like to learn from those around you.
· Imagine that you are already 40 years old and you need to write your autobiography. What would you write in it?
- Fantastic selection:
· We are going to a desert island forever, what will we take with us?
· If you were a wizard, what would be the first thing you would do?
· If our class was a ship, what do you think it would be?
-Association test:
WITHWhat color (animal, historical period, branch of the military, household appliance, plant, part of an apartment, etc.) is associated with your school?
- Color chart:Place red cards on the table if you liked our conversation or liked the matter, blue cards if you didn’t like it very much, white cards if you didn’t like it at all.
Such methods make it possible to get to know a child in a relatively short period of time and trace the dynamics of his development. It should be noted that the above methods are not only a researcher’s tool, but also methods for children to self-know themselves. A child who thought about who he is, what he is like, has taken a big step in his development.
4) Testing is a research method that uses standardized questions and tasks - tests, which allow, with a known probability, to determine the current level of development of an individual's knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics, and also to determine their compliance with certain standards or compare with the development of the quality under study in the subject in more early period.
Testing assumes that the subject performs a certain activity: this can be solving problems, drawing, telling a story based on a picture, etc. - depending on the technique used; a certain test takes place, based on the results of which the researcher draws conclusions about the presence, characteristics and level of development of certain properties.
There are the following main types of tests:
Achievement tests are tests used to identify educational or professional knowledge, skills and abilities, including solving problems that have educational or professional content. As an example, all cases of test examinations can serve, for example, the Unified State Exam.
Ability tests are a specially selected standardized set of tasks used to assess a person’s potential ability to solve various problems. Ability tests are designed to measure the level of development of certain abilities (memory, thinking, intelligence, professional, etc.). Any type of intelligence test can also be considered an aptitude test. Thus, the Stanford-Binet test, the Wechsler scales and various group intelligence tests are used in educational institutions at all levels as tests of academic ability, since it is recognized that they can predict academic performance. Special tests are developed to identify specific abilities, such as science or languages.
Personality tests are tests that measure various aspects of an individual’s personality: attitudes, values, relationships, emotional, motivational and interpersonal properties, typical forms of behavior.
In this case, questionnaires or projective tests are used. Personality questionnaires are a type of questionnaire aimed at measuring various personality traits. Personality questionnaires are divided into: a) personality trait questionnaires; b) typological questionnaires; c) motive questionnaires; d) interest questionnaires; e) values questionnaires; f) attitude questionnaires.
Projective is one of the methods of personality research. Based on identifying projections of the subject’s personality traits in the experimental data with subsequent interpretation. The method is provided by a set of projective techniques (projective tests), among which are distinguished: a) associative (for example, the Rorschach test, the test of unfinished sentences, etc.); b) interpretive (for example, a thematic apperception test is one in which it is required to interpret social situations depicted in pictures); c) expressive (psychodrama, drawing of a person or non-existent animal, etc.).
Thus, the test is always associated with measuring the manifestation of one or another psychological property of a person and assessing the level of its development or formation.
When conducting testing, you must adhere to a number of rules:
5). Study of activity products - a research method that uses a system of procedures aimed at collecting, systematizing, analyzing and interpreting the products of human activity, this method allows you to indirectly study the formation of knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, abilities of a person, without coming into contact with him.
Analysis of personal documents (photographs, diaries, autobiographies, personal files, notebooks, creative works) provides material for studying the life path of an individual, her attitude to learning, the level of knowledge acquisition, and the development of skills and abilities.
In pedagogical research, students’ essays, creative work, test papers, their drawings, and crafts can be considered as materialized products of students’ activities.
The study of the products of activity makes it possible to judge a person’s readiness to participate in a certain type of activity, the level of activity achieved and the process of performing the activity itself, the person’s attitude to the activity and its results.
6). Content analysis. Often of interest are the reflections of the subject himself about what changes have occurred in him in the process and as a result of his inclusion in some system of interactions and relationships. In this case we are talking about the use of such a method of pedagogical research as content analysis.
Content analysis (English: contents) is a scientific method for identifying and assessing the characteristics of texts and speech messages.
The procedure for applying the content analysis method involves: collecting texts compiled by subjects; identification of units of analysis of textual material that are significant for the study; interpretation of test messages from subjects from the perspective of selected units.
6). Study and generalization of teaching experience
Any pedagogical research turns to the experience of practical workers: teachers, educators, methodologists. Some scientists understand pedagogical experience as practical pedagogical activity and the result of this activity, that is, they consider pedagogical experience in the broad sense of the word. In a narrower under the pedalGogical experience is understood as the skill of a teacher. They often talk about advanced pedagogical experience, which means “the work experience of a particular teacher, school, district, etc., achieving results that best meet the requirements at a particular stage of development” (M. V. Zvereva) .
What criteria can be used to determine best practices? Let's list some of them:
· Higher performance in educational or educational work than others.
· Scientific validity of the work.
· Sufficiently long-term operation (at least a year).
· Creative novelty.
· Relevance.
· Reducing the time required to achieve high results (compared to typical ones).
By degree creative best practices could be:
· modification, i.e. someone's experience is used in new conditions,
· combinatorial, which combines approaches and techniques used by different teachers,
· innovative, involving the creation of fundamentally new methods,
· research experience.
Ways to learn from experience:
· Analysis of publications.
· Analysis of teacher documentation (reports, reports, plans, etc.).
· Observing the activities of a teacher or educator.
· Analysis of student work (notebooks, essays, crafts, drawings, etc.).
· Studying the level of training and education of students.
· Conversation with teacher, students, parents, colleagues.
· Generalization and description of experience
The work on studying teaching experience takes place in several stages:
1. Gathering facts using the methods listed above.
2. Classification of collected information by problem.
3. Structuring the teacher’s activities based on the collected material ; representation of his experience as an integral system.
4. The role of creativity in research activities Methods for creatively solving research problems
As A.F. Zakirova notes, artistic and figurative means that “invade” pedagogical research (metaphors, comparisons, allegories), just like the means of everyday language, perform an active heuristic function in the creative process, being a kind of catalyst for creativity, stimulating the advancement and original development of pedagogical solutions.
A.F. Zakirova emphasizes that scientific creativity, which has a spiral nature, is characterized by an alternate predominance (emphasis) of the rational-logical and subjective-emotional aspects.
Methods of creative activity : method of structural analysis of a research problem, figurative picture method, method of “heuristic questions”, “synectics”, brainstorming method, etc.
Method of structural analysis of a research problem consists in the researcher identifying the structural components of the problem under study and identifying the distinctive features of each component.
Figurative painting method recreates such a state for the researcher when the perception and understanding of the object seem to merge, a holistic, undivided vision of the object occurs. The researcher, with the help of drawings, symbols, and key terms, expresses the basics of the problem under study.
Heuristic question method developed by the ancient Roman orator Quintilian. To find information about an event or object, the following seven key questions are asked: Who? What? For what? Where? How? How? When? Paired combinations of questions generate a new question, for example: How-When? The answers to these questions and their various combinations give rise to unusual ideas and solutions regarding the object under study.
Brainstorming method. One of the effective methods for solving creative problems is brainstorming or brainstorming.The main task of the method "Brainstorm" - collecting as many ideas as possible as a result of freeing the discussion participants from the inertia of thinking and stereotypes. Everyone can express their ideas, supplement and clarify them. An expert is assigned to the groups, whose task is to record the ideas put forward on paper. The “assault” lasts 10-15 minutes.
Work is carried out in the following groups: generating ideas, analyzing a problem situation and evaluating ideas, generating counterideas. The generation of ideas occurs in groups according to certain rules. At the idea generation stage, any criticism is prohibited. Then the ideas received in groups are systematized and combined according to general principles and approaches. Next, various obstacles to the implementation of the selected ideas are considered. Critical comments made are evaluated. Only those ideas that have not been rejected by criticisms and counter-ideas are finally selected.
Synectics method – This is brainstorming done using analogies. There are several types of analogies:
- Direct analogy . The object (process) under consideration is compared with a similar one from another field of science, technology or living nature to find a sample solution. Thus, at one time, a term appeared in pedagogical science, the concept of “technology,” borrowed from the field of technical production.
- Personal analogy (empathy). The researcher imagines himself in the place of the subject.
- Symbolic analogy. It is required to define the object (concept) in a paradoxical, metaphorical form, highlighting its essence. The definition must consist of two words (usually an adjective and a noun), where one word contradicts the content of the other, i.e. the connection between words must contain something unexpected, surprising, for example, a book (defined concept) - a silent storyteller (definition).
The creative nature of the research is also given by the methods of meaningful and semantic analysis of one’s own thinking, which involve obtaining answers to the following questions : what I want to explore; why, why am I conducting research on this topic; why did you choose this particular problem and not another problem for research; what is the purpose of the research I am doing; what I know and what I would like to know about the problem of interest; what the problem situation is; what needs to be done to eliminate the problem situation; what interferes with solving a problem situation or achieving a goal; what issues need to be addressed to solve the problem; what research methods should be used, why these particular ones, etc.
“Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia” - Research methods in pedagogy are “techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge and the study of phenomena of pedagogical reality.”
Ways and methods of understanding objective reality are usually called research methods. Using methods, each science obtains information about the subject being studied, analyzes and processes the data obtained, and is included in the system of known knowledge. The ultimate goal of any pedagogical research is to identify order and regularity in the process being studied, i.e., to establish a pattern.
Currently, pedagogical research is carried out using a variety of methods:
– pedagogical observation;
– exploratory conversation;
– study of school documentation;
– studying the products of students’ activities;
– pedagogical experiment;
– study and generalization of the experience of practicing teachers and innovative teachers;
– sociological research methods;
– methods of mathematical statistics;
– theoretical analysis of pedagogical ideas, etc.
Pedagogical observation. This method is used quite often, in almost any pedagogical research. This is obvious, since any pedagogical phenomenon must be observed in order to accumulate and record material that is necessary for further work.
Exploratory conversation. Using this method, scientists identify the attitude of both students and teachers to certain methods of work, which in the future helps to adjust these methods and obtain better results.
The study of school documentation and students' productive activities is aimed at studying school documentation and the products of school activities.
Pedagogical experiment. The essence of this method is to test the developed theories and hypotheses under the created conditions. If a hypothesis or theory provides positive confirmation in practice, the researcher gives corresponding theoretical generalizations and conclusions. Depending on the tasks set, several types of experiments are distinguished: – ascertaining – carried out at the beginning of the study; – creative-transformative – lies in the fact that scientists develop research hypotheses; – control – based on checking the results obtained and summing up the results.
Natural– occupies a special place in the methodology of pedagogical research. This method consists in the fact that the analyzed object or phenomenon is studied in the environment familiar to the subject, without disturbing the normal course of activity of either the teacher or the student. Studying and systematizing the pedagogical experience of innovators. This method is based on the study and analysis of the work of the best schools and teachers who successfully carry out training and education. The point is that what is not always known in pedagogy is something that can only be approached empirically, that is, experimentally. If these innovations are not generalized and a theoretical basis is not provided for them, they will remain the property of one teacher. Method of mathematical statistics used to analyze the actual result obtained during the research process. Theoretical analysis of pedagogical ideas makes it possible to make scientific generalizations in important areas, on issues of training and education, as well as to find new patterns where they cannot be identified using empirical methods of research.
Methods of pedagogical research is divided into:
- empirical and theoretical;
- ascertaining and transformative;
- qualitative and quantitative;
- private and general;
- substantive and formal;
- methods of collecting empirical data, testing and refuting hypotheses and theories;
- methods of description, explanation and forecast;
- special methods used in individual pedagogical sciences;
- methods for processing research results, etc.
TO general scientific methods (used by different sciences) include:
- general theoretical(abstraction and concretization, analysis and synthesis, comparison, contrast, induction and deduction, i.e. logical methods);
- sociological(questionnaires, interviews, expert surveys, ratings);
- socio-psychological(sociometry, testing, training);
- mathematical(ranking, scaling, indexing, correlation).
TO concrete scientific (specific pedagogical) methods include, which in turn are divided into theoretical and empirical (practical).
Theoretical methods serve for interpretation, analysis and generalization of theoretical positions and empirical data. This is a theoretical analysis of literature, archival materials and documents; analysis of basic concepts and research terms; method of analogies, building hypotheses and thought experiments, forecasting, modeling, etc.
Empirical methods are intended for the creation, collection and organization of empirical material - facts of pedagogical content, products of educational activities.
Empirical methods include, for example, observation, conversation, interviewing, questioning, methods for studying the products of students’ activities, school documentation, assessment methods (rating, pedagogical council, self-assessment, etc.), measurement and control methods (scaling, cutting, testing, etc.), as well as a pedagogical experiment and experimental verification of the research findings in a public school setting. Both theoretical and empirical methods are usually used in conjunction with mathematical and statistical methods, which are used to process data obtained during the study, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena being studied.
Pedagogical research is a search for ways and means of improving the pedagogical process. Such paths are the methods of pedagogical research. With their help, it is possible to obtain information about a particular subject being studied, analyze and process it, and then include it in the system of known knowledge.
Classification of pedagogical research methods
Studies are classified in several ways. So they distinguish:
· Theoretical and cause-and-effect analysis, comparative historical analysis.
· Practical methods: conversation, questioning, observation, experiment.
Depending on the sources of information, methods of pedagogical research are divided into methods for studying theoretical sources and methods for analyzing the existing pedagogical process. According to the methods of processing the analysis of certain data, methods such as the method of analysis and the method of quantitative processing of the material are distinguished.
Some methods of pedagogical research
1. Observation as a method of pedagogical research it is the most accessible and widespread. Observation means a pre-prepared and organized perception of a process, phenomenon or object in natural conditions. It should be noted that it is somewhat different from the so-called everyday one. Firstly, in scientific observation specific tasks are set, observation schemes are developed, and objects are identified. Secondly, the results obtained must be recorded. Thirdly, the received data must be processed. We can speak of high effectiveness of observation if it is systematic, versatile, long-term, widespread and objective. Since observation does not reveal the inner side of pedagogical research, it is used only at the initial stage of the study, in conjunction with other methods.
2. Learning from experience - one of the most ancient methods of pedagogical research. In a broad sense, the study of experience implies an organized one that is aimed at establishing historical connections between teaching and upbringing, as well as identifying sustainable common features in educational systems. Thanks to this method, an analysis of ways to solve problems is carried out, and a balanced conclusion is drawn about the need to apply these solutions in new historical conditions.
3. Studying the products of student creativity, such as class and homework, abstracts, reports, essays, as well as the results of technical and aesthetic creativity. This method has wide application, for example, it is used in assessing the individual characteristics of students, their inclinations, interests and attitudes towards various responsibilities and affairs. Organizing educational research using this method also requires careful planning, as well as preparation for skillful use with other methods.
4. Conversations, dialogues and discussions are what help to identify people’s attitudes, their intentions, feelings, positions and assessments in relation to a particular phenomenon. A pedagogical conversation has its own peculiarities: it is characterized by premeditated attempts by the researcher to penetrate into the inner world of those being studied, as well as to identify the reason for the appearance of a particular action.
5. Experiment - this is a kind of observation, only in this case the experimenter observes the process that he himself systematically carries out. Thus, a pedagogical experiment can be carried out with a group of students, a school, or several schools at once. How reliable an experiment turns out to be largely depends on compliance with all its conditions.
6. Testing- one of the most popular methods of pedagogical research. It is a targeted and identical examination of all subjects, which must be carried out under strictly controlled conditions. Testing differs from other research methods in accessibility, accuracy, simplicity and the possibility of automation.
7. Questioning - mass collection of material, which is carried out through pre-developed questionnaires, so-called questionnaires. The survey is based on the assumption that the person being surveyed will honestly answer the questions given in the questionnaire. However, as statistics show, in practice such expectations are met only by half, which sharply undermines confidence in questionnaires as an objective method of obtaining data.
Methods of pedagogical research - these are methods of obtaining scientific information in order to establish natural connections, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.
In pedagogy, both pedagogical methods themselves and methods drawn from other sciences are widely used: psychology, sociology, physiology, mathematics, etc. When conducting pedagogical research, they are used general theoretical methods: analysis, synthesis, comparison, induction, deduction, abstraction, generalization, specification, modeling; sociological methods: questionnaires, interviews, ratings; socio-psychological methods: sociometry, testing, training; mathematical methods: ranking, scaling, correlation.
In pedagogy there are several classifications of methods research:
Chepikov V.T. identifies empirical, theoretical, methods of quantitative and qualitative processing of pedagogical information. Smirnov V.I. – (general scientific, specific scientific) - generally accepted classification. Slastenin V.A. – methods of studying teaching experience, methods of theoretical research, mathematical and statistical methods. Podlasy I.P. – traditional (empirical, practical), new (experimental, theoretical).
Theoretical methods Research allows us to clarify, expand and systematize scientific facts, explain and predict phenomena, increase the reliability of the results obtained, move from abstract to concrete knowledge, establish relationships between various concepts and hypotheses, and highlight the most significant and secondary ones among them. These include:
Analysis - mental decomposition of the whole being studied into its components, highlighting individual signs and qualities of the phenomenon.
Synthesis - mental connection of signs, properties of a phenomenon into a semantic (abstract) whole.
Comparison - establishing similarities and differences between the phenomena under consideration.
Abstraction - mental abstraction of any property or sign of an object from its other features, properties, connections.
Specification - mental reconstruction, recreation of an object on the basis of previously isolated abstractions (the opposite of abstraction).
Generalization - highlighting common features in processes and phenomena, i.e. generalizing what is being studied.
Modeling - study of processes and phenomena using their real or ideal models.
Induction And deduction - logical methods of generalizing empirically obtained data. The inductive method involves the movement of thought from particular judgments to a general conclusion, the deductive method - from a general judgment to a particular conclusion.
TOempirical (practical) methods studies include: methods of data collection and accumulation (observation, conversation, questioning, testing, etc.); control and measurement methods (scaling, slices, tests); data processing methods (mathematical, statistical, graphical, tabular ); assessment methods (self-esteem, rating, pedagogical council ); methods for introducing research results into teaching practice (experiment, experiential learning, large-scale implementation), etc.
Observation - purposeful, systematic study of a specific pedagogical phenomenon. It can be either the main method of accumulating scientific material or an auxiliary one, forming part of some more general methodology.
Types of observations:
By temporary organization allocate continuous And discrete(at separate intervals) observation.
By volume observation happens wide (solid), when all behavioral features that are available for the most detailed observation are recorded, or observations are made of a group of observed people as a whole. Highly specialized (selective) observation is aimed at identifying individual aspects of a phenomenon or individual objects.
By method of obtaining information observation happens immediate (direct), when an observer records directly observed facts during an observation, and indirect (mediated), when it is not the object or process itself that is directly observed, but its result.
According to the type of connection between the observer and the observed differentiate participant and non-participant observation. Participant observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is studying. Participant observation, in which the researcher is masked and the purpose of the observation is hidden, raises serious ethical problems. IN non-participant observation The researcher’s position is open; it is the perception of a phenomenon from the outside.
According to the terms of the allocate field observations(in natural conditions) and laboratory(using special equipment).
By frequency of use there are observations permanent, repeated, one-time, multiple.
By method of obtaining information allocate direct And indirect observation. Direct - this is an observation when the researcher himself conducts it, and indirect- observation through the description of phenomena by other people who directly observed it.
AND investigate Yale conversation . Conversation as a method of scientific research makes it possible to clarify the opinions and attitudes of both educators and students to certain pedagogical facts and phenomena; an independent or additional research method in order to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not understood during observation. Because of this, data obtained through conversation are more objective.
Interviewing - a type of conversation. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. The answers can be recorded openly.
Questionnaire - a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires (questionnaires). Types of questionnaires: open, requiring independent construction of an answer, and closed, in which you have to choose one of ready-made answers; half-closed (half-open)- ready-made answers are given and you can add your own answers; nominal, requiring the subject's last name to be indicated, and anonymous- without indicating the author of the answers; full And trimmed; propaedeutic And control etc.
Testing - a targeted examination, identical for all subjects, carried out under strictly controlled conditions, allowing for objective measurement of the studied characteristics of the pedagogical process.
Test (from the English test - test, research) - a standardized measurement procedure. Usually it consists of a series of relatively short tests, which can be various tasks, questions, situations.
Studying documents is also a method of pedagogical research. According to the form of recording information exist:
written documents(contain mostly alphabetic text, including class journals, student diaries, teachers’ work (calendar) plans, curriculum plans, student medical records, minutes of meetings, programs, student notebooks, tests);
statistical data(information is mostly digital);
iconographic documentation(film and photographic documents, paintings);
phonetic documents(tape recordings, gramophone records, cassettes);
technical products(drawings, crafts, technical creativity).
ANDstudying and summarizing teaching experience - this method is aimed at analyzing the state of practice.
The object of study can be mass experience - to identify leading trends; negative experience - to identify typical errors and shortcomings; innovate experience - to identify and generalize elements of the new, effective in the activities of the organizers of educational and management processes. M. N. Skatkin distinguishes two types best practices: pedagogical excellence and innovation.Pedagogical excellence consists of rational use of recommendations from science and practice. Innovation - These are our own methodological findings, new content.
Scaling - also one of the methods of pedagogical research that allows you to turn qualitative factors into quantitative series. Scaling, in which personality qualities are assessed with the help of competent people (experts), is called rating.
WITH ociometric methods make it possible to establish socio-psychological relationships between members of a group in quantitative terms.
A special group consists of mathematical methods And methods of statistical processing of research material. In pedagogy, they are used to process data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena being studied.
