So, you registered on Aliexpress or any other foreign online store, spent a lot of time figuring out how to shop correctly, choose a product and a reliable seller. And now, the time has come for the first order, but to complete the registration process you need to write the delivery address in Latin letters.

But how to do it right? You are used to writing the address only in Russian, but here you need to somehow write it in English. Believe me, there is nothing difficult about filling out the address. Everything is very simple. The most important thing is to write the index correctly. It is at the specified postal code that the parcel will arrive at your post office, and there the postal employees will need your address in order to send you a notification about the parcel. Therefore, the address must be written in such a way that the post office can understand it.

If you write the postal code incorrectly, your package will make a short journey. First, it will arrive at another post office using the wrong postal code, and there the postal workers will read your address, understand that you made a mistake, edit the postal code and send your parcel to the correct post office.

If you made a mistake in writing the address, but the zip code was indicated correctly, then you just need to track your parcel from Aliexpress using the tracking number. As soon as it arrives at your post office, immediately take your passport with you (to confirm your identity and that the package is intended for you) and go receive it before it goes back to the sender due to an incorrect address.

Instructions on how to write an address in Latin (English) letters

1)County– we write the country here. The country needs to be translated into English
State/Province/Region– region.
City- City.
Google Translate will help you translate the country and city https://translate.google.com/?hl=en
2) The following address is written for the employee on your mail, so you need to write it in such a way that it is clear to him.
The address is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no need to translate words. Otherwise your postman won't understand anything.
Street Address – here we write down the street, house number, building, apartment

Zip/Postal Code – index (post office number). The index will help you be found, even if you have errors in your address. The index can be checked on the Russian Post website.

Write the address in Russian letters to convert them to Latin writing
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We also write abbreviations in Latin letters:
boulevard
village - der.
house - d. or dom
name - im.
quarter - kvartal
apartment - kv
region - obl.
lane - per.
village – pos.
highway - highway

Example address:
292397 Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, st. Esenina, house 8-2, kv 14

Don't forget to include phone numbers:
Tel - city phone number. You only need to write numbers (no brackets or dashes). We start with the country code. (7 - Russian code). Then the area code and then your number.
Mobile - your mobile phone. We also write with the country code. (7 - for Russia) then the operator code and your number.
Phone numbers are needed so that postal workers can contact you in case of any problems.

Many people ask the question: “What are Latin letters?” In fact, everything is extremely simple. In fact, the Latin alphabet is the alphabetic characters of modern English. The only difference is the pronunciation.

Where are Latin letters and numbers currently used?

Today, more than 40% of the world's population writes in Latin. And in fact, Latin letters are generally accepted international alphabetic characters. You don’t have to look far for an example; just take out your foreign passport and look at it. Under the surname written in Russian, you will definitely see its Latin version.

Numbers are also widely used in all countries. In Russia they are used in contracts, laws, and for numbering clauses. In order to understand how to write in Latin letters, it is enough to select consonant letters and take into account complex combinations, the table with which is given below. Typically, transliteration tables can be found at the information desk of any foreign consulate.

The history of the emergence of Latin writing

It is believed that the roots of the Latin letter go back to the Etruscan and Greek alphabets. There is also an opinion that the Phoenician letter also had its influence. Some are inclined to think that there were also Egyptian alphabetic signs.

The first reliable studies date back to the 7th century BC. The archaic Latin alphabet consisted of 21 letters.

In 312 BC, Appius Claudius Russ abolished the letter Z, after which only 20 letters remained. In the 1st century, Z returned again, and with it a new symbol Y appeared, and the alphabet took on its now familiar form. Over the following years, some letters disappeared and reappeared, some of them eventually united and gave birth to new symbols. Most often, controversy surrounds the letter symbol W.

Influence of the Greek language

Speaking about the Latin alphabet, it is difficult not to mention the influence of the Greek language, since it made a huge contribution to the formation of the modern Latin spelling. If you are confused about the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then you can search or remember the Greek alphabet.

By the way, the letters x, y and z were borrowed from the Greeks. Interesting fact: in Greece they wrote not only from left to right, but also vice versa, which is why they had so many inscriptions that read the same way, no matter which end you start from. In fact, this phenomenon is often given a certain mystical character. There is even a magical "SATOR Square". All words written in it are read not only from right to left and vice versa, but, what is most interesting, the characters can also be read diagonally. There is a belief that by writing all these symbols, you can make a wish that will definitely come true.

How to write your first or last name in Latin

Very often, when submitting documents such as visas, you are required to indicate your personal data using exclusively the Latin alphabet, the letters of which must correspond as closely as possible to Russian. Let's look at the most common names and their spellings.

Pronunciation of Latin letters

If you are asking the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then, most likely, you will also be interested in learning how to pronounce them correctly. There are no difficulties here either, since, most likely, you heard this alphabet back in school.

Despite the identity of English letters, they should not be confused. There are no complex or unpronounceable sounds in Latin, so everything is extremely simple. For comparison: in the English language there is a whole list of sounds that are very difficult for a Russian speaker to pronounce.

Finally

We reviewed the topic: “What are Latin letters?”, and now you can easily fill out an application for a visa or for any other documents that you are going to send abroad. Convenience also lies in the fact that sometimes, when you need to dictate an email address or a link on the Internet over the phone, you can use the Latin alphabet - and the interlocutor will definitely understand you. Therefore, you don’t have to explain anything according to the principle “es is like a dollar,” etc.

Centuries have passed, but we still use this amazing language, developed not by scientists based on sociological surveys and other studies, but by people who did not know what electricity is, where the ozone holes are located and much more. Nevertheless, the legacy of ancient civilizations still makes itself felt, enchanting and amazing with its amazing solutions not only in art, but also in other areas.

There are 25 letters in the Latin alphabet: 7 vowels (a, e, i, j, o, u, y) and 18 consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z).

In botanical literature, all names are written with a capital letter, except for the specific and subspecific epithet in the names of species and subspecies.

Remember the pronunciation features of vowels, diphthongs and some consonants. Translate the names of plants given as examples into Russian.

Features of vowel pronunciation

The vowel sounds [a] [and] [u] are pronounced as in Russian:

A a– [a]: Acacia, Acer, Adonis, Agava etc.

I i– [and]: Angelica, Valeriana, Digitalis etc.

O o– [o]: Solanum, Fagopirum, Grossularia etc.

U u– [y]: Leonurus, Luzula, Muscari etc.

E e -[e]: the consonant sound before [e] is always pronounced firmly: Berberis, Gerbera, Geranium

Jj- [th]: written at the beginning of the syllable before the vowel and softens it: Juncus, Juniperus etc.

Yy - [And]: written in words of Greek origin: Hydrastis, Myrtus, Lychnis, Lysimachia, Symphytum etc.

Diphthongs. A diphthong is a sound consisting of two vowels:

ae Crataegus, Aegopodium, Aeonium, Aerva, Aesculus etc.

[ uh]

oe Boehmeria, Oenothera, Oenanthe etc.

In cases where the vowels “ae” and “oe” need to be pronounced separately, put a section sign “..”: Aloе

au-[aw]: Laurus, Rauvolfia

eu-[ew]: Eucommia, Eucalyptus etc.

Features of the pronunciation of some consonants

C c – [ts] or [ To]:

[ts] is pronounced before the sounds [ uh] And [ And]: officinale, Cirsium, Citrus, Cereus, Cetraria, Cerasus etc.

[To] pronounced in all other cases: Caulerpa, Carum, Carica, Canna, Cladonia, Conium etc.

Hh – [G']: pronounced with thick aspiration: Hyosciamus, Hevea, Hibiscus etc.

Kk – [To]: written in words of non-Latin origin: Kalanchoе, Kalopanax, Kniphofia etc.

Ll – [l]: pronounced softly: Lamiaceae, Secale etc.

Qq– written only in combination with [ u] and in position before other vowels it is pronounced [ kv]: Quercus, Aquilegia

Ss – [With] or [z]:

[h] is pronounced in the position between vowels and in combination with – m- - n- Rosa, Rosmarinus etc .

[With] pronounced in all other cases: Asparagus, Asplenium, Aster etc.

Xx– pronounced [ ks]: Panax, radix, cortex etc

Zz – [h]: written in words of Greek origin: Leuzea, Zea, Oryza, Zingiber etc.

Exceptions are words of German, Italian and other origins: Zincum etc.

Memorize Latin and Greek letter combinations and their pronunciation. Translate into Russian the names of plants given as examples.

Latin and Greek letter combinations

ti– before vowels it is pronounced [ qi], but after s, t, x pronounced like [ti]: Lallemantia, Nicotiana, but Neottia

- ngu– before vowels it is pronounced [ ngv]: Sanguisorba

-su- reads like [ St.]: Suaeda, Suillus etc

-ch- pronounced like [ X]: Chamomilla, Arachis, Chenopodium, Chondrilla etc.

-sch- reads like [ cx], not [sh.]: Schizandra, Schoenoplectus, Schoenus etc.

-rh- pronounced [r]: Rhamnus, Rhizobium, Rhododendron, Rheum, Rhinanthus etc.

-th- pronounced as [t]: Thymus, Thea, Thlaspi, Thladiantha etc.

-ph- pronounced [f]: Phellodendron, Phacelia Phaseolus etc.

Latin accent rules

The number of syllables in a word is equal to the number of vowels; Diphthong vowels form one syllable:

Salvia – Sal-vi-a- 3 syllables

Althaea – Al-thae-a – 3 syllables

Eucalyptus – Eu-ca-lyp-tus – 4 syllables

in words that consist of two syllables, the stress never falls on the last syllable: fungus, labor, tuber, herba, Crocus etc.

In words that consist of three or more syllables, the stress may fall on the second or third syllable from the end:

Foe-ni-cu-lum, me-di-ca-men-tum

The place of stress depends on the length and or shortness of the second syllable from the end of the word:

If the second syllable is long, it will be stressed;

If the second syllable is short, then the stress moves to the third syllable;

A syllable is long if:

A vowel comes before two or more consonants, -x- or -z-:

exst`actum, Schiz`andra, Or`yza

contains a diphthong:

Spir`aea, Crat`aegus, Alth`aea

contains a long vowel sound, which is always marked with a longitude sign (-) in the dictionary:

Urtica, Solanum

A syllable is short if:

A vowel comes before another vowel:

Polem`onium, Hipp`ophaе,

Contains a short vowel, which is marked in the dictionary with a short sign (~)

`Ephedra, V`iola

Usually in dictionaries there is no sign for brevity, and longitude

put:

Familiarize yourself with Latin botanical nomenclature. Answer, what is the main botanical category?

How can a species epithet be expressed and what features of a plant can it indicate?

Latin botanical nomenclature. Species name

In modern botanical nomenclature, the binomial principle of designating plant species has been adopted, which was introduced in the 18th century. Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Rules for the design of Latin plant names are regulated International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. According to these rules, the main botanical category is viewSpecies. The name of the species consists of two words: the name of the genus and the specific epithet. Name sort ofGenus is a noun in the nominative singular case. In the botanical name of a plant, it always comes first and is written with a capital letter. Specific epithetNomen specificum- this is a definition that indicates a characteristic characteristic of a given plant species. The specific epithet comes in second place and is written with a lowercase letter. If a specific epithet consists of two words, they are written with a hyphen.

1. A specific epithet, expressed by a definition, can indicate various distinctive features:

a) – flowering time:

Adonis vernalis – spring adonis, adonis

Convallaria majalis – May lily of the valley

Colchicum autumnale – autumn crocus

b) – appearance, color, structural features and other features:

Anethum graveolens – fragrant dill

Galeopsis speciosa – beautiful pikulnik

Hyoscyamus niger – black henbane

Cicuta virosa – poisonous

Centaurea cyanus – blue cornflower

c) – habitat:

Arachis hypogaea – groundnut, peanut

Trifolium montanum – mountain clover

Ledum palustre - marsh rosemary

Lathyrus pratensis – meadow chin

Anthriscus sylvestris – forest sedum

Festuca pratensis – meadow fescue

Caltha palustris – marsh marigold

Quercus petraea – sessile oak

d) – geographical distribution:

Acacia arabica - Arabian acacia

Anacardium occidentale – western anacardium

Hamamelis virginiana

Hevea brasiliensis - Hevea brasiliensis

Hydrastis canadensis – goldenseal

Bunias orientalis

Trollius europaeus – European swimsuit

e) – absence of characteristic signs:

Barbarea vulgaris – common cress

Artemisia vulgaris – common wormwood

Hordeum vulgaris – common barley

2. A specific epithet can be expressed as a noun

Atropa belladonna

Carica papaya – melon tree

Theobroma cacao – chocolate tree

Punica granatum – pomegranate tree

Panax ginseng – Panax ginseng

Salsola richteri

3. The specific epithet can be expressed in two words:

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – bearberry

Capsella bursa-pastoris – shepherd's purse

Vaccinium vittis idaea – common lingonberry

Remember the Latin names of taxa.

Names of taxa of botanical classification

All plants are united into subordinate systematic groups - taxa, specific genera, families, orders, classes, divisions:

View - species – genus name + specific epithet

Genus - genus– noun in the nominative case

Subfamily – subfamilia– base + (o) ideae

Family – familia– base + ceae

Order – ordo– base + ales

Subclass – subclassic– base + idae

Class - classic– base + opsida

Department - divisio– base + (o) phyta

Examples:

Family names:

Fabaceae – legumes

Poaceae - bluegrass

Lamiaceae – Lamiaceae

Order names:

Cucurbitales – pumpkin

Piperales - peppers

Theales – teahouses

Subclass names:

Caryophyllidae – caryophyllides

Liliidae - liliids,

Asteridae - asterids,

Class names:

Liliopsida – monocots

Magnoliopsida – dicotyledons

using the example of a rosehip species

Briefdictionary of botanical terms

Abaxial – off-axis

Agrocenosis, or agrophytocenosis- an artificial agricultural plant community created by man when sowing or planting cultivated plants.

Adaxial– directed towards the axis.

Azonal vegetation- vegetation that does not form an independent zone anywhere, but is found in a number of zones, for example, water meadows.

Androecium- the collection of stamens of a flower.

Anemophilia– wind pollination.

Anemochoria– distribution of fruits, seeds and other diasporas by air currents.

Anthropophytes, anthropophilic plants - constantly found in phytocenoses or agrocenses due to unconscious or intentional human influence. These include weeds, native plants and plants cultivated by humans.

Antecology - flower and ecology; ecology of flower and bloom. Anteclogical studies include the production of nectar, pollen, and seeds.

Apomixis– the formation of an embryo without fertilization – from an unfertilized egg (parthenogenesis), from gametophyte cells (apogamy) or from other cells.

Apoplast– a set of interfibrillar spaces of cell membranes and intercellular spaces through which free transport of water-soluble substances occurs.

Area- part of the earth's surface within which the species is distributed.

Areola- a small area of ​​leaf mesophyll, limited by small intersecting veins.

Arilus- acetum, a formation characteristic of the seeds of many flowering plants and consisting either of succulent tissues, or having the appearance of a film or fringe; develops in various parts of the seed.

Aspect– the appearance of the phytocenosis, changing throughout the year in accordance with the alternation of phases of plant development. Aspects are named based on the color of the aspectual species.

Plant association– the basic unit of vegetation classification, which is a set of homogeneous phytocenoses.

Autecology– the science of the adaptability of individual plant species to living conditions.

Aerenchyma- air-bearing plant tissue containing large intercellular spaces.

Biogeocenosis– a homogeneous area of ​​the earth’s surface with a certain composition of living and inert components, united by metabolism and energy into a single natural complex, i.e. This is an ecosystem within the boundaries of one phytocenosis.

Biomorphs– life forms of plants, determined by their genetic nature, growth form and biological rhythm.

Biotope- a territory with homogeneous ecological conditions, occupied by a certain biocenosis and serving as a habitat for one or another species of plants or animals.

Botanical geography– the science of the patterns of geographical distribution of vegetation cover on the earth's surface.

Vacuole- a cavity in a cell surrounded by a membrane - tonoplast, filled with cell sap.

Velamen- a multilayered epidermis that covers the aerial roots of some tropical epiphytic orchids and aroids, as well as some terrestrial monocots.

Age composition of the population – distribution of individuals of the coenotic population by age and development phases. There are latent, juvenile, virginile, generating, and senile individuals.

Halophytes- plants adapted to living in saline soils.

Gametogenesis– the process of formation of sex cells – gametes.

Heliophytes– light-loving plants that cannot tolerate shade.

Helophytes– plants of shallow waters and waterlogged shores of reservoirs, a transitional group between hydrophytes and terrestrial plants; in the narrow sense - swamp plants.

Hemicryptophytes– perennial grasses with dying above-ground shoots, the renewal buds of which are located at the level of the soil surface.

Geotropism- the orientation of the axial organs of plants - shoots and roots, caused by the unilateral action of gravity. Positive geotropism of the root causes its growth to be directed towards the center of the earth, negative geotropism of the shoot - from the center.

Geophytes– plants whose renewal buds are located below the soil level.

Hygrophytes– terrestrial plants growing in conditions of high soil and air humidity.

Hydrophytes- plants that live in aquatic environments.

Gynoecium- a collection of carpels of a flower.

Hypocotyl- the axial part of the embryo and seedling, located between the cotyledons and the root.

Homeostasis in plants– relative constancy and stability of internal metabolic factors and basic physiological functions in changing environmental conditions. Homeostasis ensures the maintenance of vital functions and the consistent implementation of ontogenesis under various fluctuations in external conditions.

Double fertilization – a type of fertilization characteristic of angiosperms in which one of the sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote, giving rise to the seed embryo, and the other sperm fuses with the diploid nucleus of the central cell to form a triploid nucleus, giving rise to the endosperm.

Diaspora – unit of dissemination, a naturally separated part of a plant that serves for its reproduction and dispersal.

Dominants– predominant plant species in phytocenoses.

Sapwood- the outer part of the wood of a stem or root, containing living cells and storage substances and conducting water.

Ovary– the lower part of the carpel or gynoecium, consisting of fused carpels; contains ovules and differentiates into a fruit.

Zoochoria– distribution of seeds, fruits and other plant diaspores by animals.

Variability- the property of plants to deviate in their characteristics and in the characteristics of individual development from the parental forms. Variability is distinguished genotypic caused by changes in gene and chromosomal structures - mutations - or resulting from a new combination of parental genes in a daughter organism, and phenotypic– modification variability of gene manifestation during the implementation of hereditary information in different external conditions.

Callose– a polysaccharide that forms glucose upon hydrolysis, a component of the cell wall in sieve elements.

Callus- tissue consisting of large thin-walled, meristematically active cells, formed as a result of plant damage in healing wounds and grafts, as well as in tissue culture.

Carpella, carpel- the same as the carpel.

Cell wall– a structural formation on the periphery of a plant cell, gives strength and shape to the cell, limits the size of the protoplast and protects it. It is a product of the vital activity of protoplast.

Cell sap-aqueous solution of various substances; Contained in the vacuole, it is a product of the vital activity of the protoplast.

Coleoptile- a vaginal leaf-like formation, shaped like a cone-shaped closed cap, surrounding the epicotyl and embryonic bud in cereals.

Coleorhiza- membranous sheath around the root of the cereal embryo.

Collenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of living cells with unevenly thickened cell walls that never become lignified.

Root– the main vegetative organ of a plant, anchoring the plant in the substrate and providing soil nutrition (absorbs water and minerals from the soil).

Root cap– formation covering the apical meristem of the root in the form of a cap; its tissues perform important functions. Sometimes a synonym for “root cap” is the term “calyptra” - cap, cap.

Spine– embryonic main root; forms the basal continuation of the hypocotyl in the embryo.

Cosmopolitans- plants and animals found in most of the inhabited regions of the Earth.

Cryptophytes– perennial grasses in which renewal buds are located below the soil level or under water (geophytes, helophytes, hydrophytes).

Xerophytes- plants adapted to life in arid habitats.

Xylem– conductive tissue of plants (wood), which provides an upward flow of water with dissolved minerals from the root to the shoot.

Cuticle- a lipophilic film covering the surface of the epidermis in plants.

Lignification– impregnation of cell membranes with lignin.

Sheet- a lateral organ of a plant that performs the functions of photosynthesis, transpiration and gas exchange.

Sheet mosaic– mutual arrangement of leaves, thanks to which they do not shade each other. It is especially evident in shade-tolerant plants and represents an adaptation in low light conditions.

Lithophytes– plants of rocky habitats.

Mesophytes– plants adapted to life in conditions of average water supply

Meristems– educational tissues whose cells retain the ability to divide for a long time.

Mosaic– horizontal heterogeneity of phytocenoses and their division into smaller structures.

Morphogenesis– morphogenesis, the formation of morphological structures and the entire organism in the process of ontogenesis.

Nastia– non-directional movements of organs relative to the axis of fixedly attached plants in response to changes in diffusely acting external factors (light-darkness, heat-cold).

Nyctinastic movements- movements of organs caused by the change of day and night, as well as changes in temperature (thermonasty), or light intensity (photonasty), or both.

Norm of reaction– hereditarily determined amplitude of possible changes in the implementation of the genotype. The reaction norm determines the number and nature of possible phenotype variants, or modifications, under different environmental conditions.

Nucellus– the central part of the ovule, in which the embryo sac develops, is usually considered to be a homologue of the megasporangium.

Abundance– number of individuals based on visual assessment in points of a particular scale

Ontogenesis, or individual development– the whole complex of consistent and irreversible changes in the life activity and structure of a plant from its emergence from a zygote or any diaspora to natural death due to aging. Ontogenesis is the consistent implementation of the hereditary program for the development of a plant organism in specific environmental conditions.

Pollination- the process of transferring pollen from the anthers to the stigma.

Organism as a system– a plant as an integral system with several subordinate levels of organization - organismal, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular. Regulation of the growth and development of the entire organism is carried out through the integration of processes occurring at all levels, interconnected by numerous direct and feedback connections.

Pericarp- the same as the pericarp.

Periodization of ontogeny– a set of stages and life states of plants (according to Uranov, 1975)

Plasmolysis– the process by which the cytoplasm is separated from the cell membrane. Occurs due to loss of water by the cell.

Plastids- double-membrane organelles of a plant cell. Contain circular DNA, ribosomes, enzymes. There are three types of mature plastids: chloroplasts, leucoplasts and chromoplasts.

Fetus- the reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants, develops from a flower and contains seeds.

The escape– the main vegetative organ of a plant, performing the functions of aerial nutrition, consists of a stem, leaves and buds.

Polarity– a specific orientation of processes and structures in space characteristic of plants, leading to the emergence of morphophysiological gradients and expressed in differences in properties at opposite ends or sides of cells, tissues, organs and the entire plant.

Population- a collection of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain territory, freely interbreeding and, to a certain extent, isolated from neighboring populations.

Protoplast– living contents of the cell, cytoplasm with nucleus.

Development– qualitative changes in the structure and functions of the plant and its individual parts - organs, tissues and cells, arising in the process of ontogenesis.

Vegetation– a set of plant communities, or phytocenoses, of the Earth or its individual regions.

Relics- species of plants and animals that have been preserved in modern ecosystems as remnants of disappeared floras and faunas of past geological eras and are in some inconsistency with modern conditions of existence.

Height– an irreversible quantitative increase in body size, volume and weight associated with the formation of new body structures.

Seismonastic movements- movements of organs that occur in response to shocks and tremors experienced by plants. Characteristic of flowers of Asteraceae and leaves of Mimosa pudica.

Seed coat- the cover of the seed, in the formation of which integuments and sometimes other parts of the ovule take part.

Seed– organ of reproduction and dispersal of seed plants.

Simplast– a set of interconnected protoplasts of plant cells and their plasmodesmata.

Scarification- a technique that accelerates the germination of hard seeds, consisting of scratching the seed coat without damaging the embryo.

Sclerenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of dead cells with uniformly thickened lignified cell walls.

Infertility- a collection of fruits frolicking from one inflorescence

Sporogenesis– the process of formation of spores – microspores (microsporogenesis) and megaspores (megasporogenesis).

Stem– shoot axis, consists of internodes and nodes.

Seed stratification- a technique that accelerates their development and germination. It consists of preliminary keeping the seeds on a moist substrate.

succession– unidirectional replacement of some plant communities (biogeocenoses, ecosystems) by others over time.

Taxis– directed movements of the whole organism, caused by the unilateral influence of external stimuli, gravity, light, and chemical exposure.

Therophytes– annual plants that tolerate unfavorable seasons in the form of seeds.

Tonoplast- membrane that bounds the vacuole.

Tropisms– oriented movements of organs of fixedly attached plants in response to the unilateral action of external factors (light, gravity, etc.).

Phanerophytes– trees and shrubs that have open renewal buds high above the ground.

Phenotype- the entire complex of external and internal signs and properties of an organism, manifested during its ontogenesis. The phenotype is the result of the implementation of the genotype under certain environmental conditions.

Plant phylogeny– the process of evolutionary development of plant organisms belonging to a specific taxon. Phylogeny consists of the historical sequence of related ontogenies.

Phytocenosis (plant community)- a historically established stable collection of various plant species in a certain area of ​​the territory. A phytocenosis is characterized by certain relationships between its constituent plant species, as well as between plant species and environmental conditions.

Phloem– conductive plant tissue (bast), which provides a downward flow of water with organic substances (assimilates) from leaves to roots, flowers, fruits and growing shoots.

Photoperiodism– the reaction of plants to the ratio of the length of day and night, expressed in changes in the processes of growth and development and associated with the adaptation of ontogenesis to seasonal changes in external conditions. One of the main manifestations of photoperiodism is the photoperiodic reaction of plant flowering.

Phototropism- orientation of the axial organs of the plant - shoots and roots - to one-sided illumination, expressed in directional growth or bending towards the light (positive phototropism of the stem) or away from the light (negative phototropism of the root).

Chalaza- the basal part of the ovule, in which the integuments originate and at the base of which the vascular bundle coming from the funiculus ends or branches.

Chamephytes- plants whose shoots do not die off in the winter; renewal buds are located close to the soil surface and protected by litter and snow cover.

Chlorenchyma– chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma (assimilation tissue), photosynthetic tissue consisting of cells with many chloroplasts; performs the function of photosynthesis.

Flower– reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants

Cytoplasm- part of the cell located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; hyaloplasm with organelles.

Cuttings- a method of vegetative propagation of plants using cuttings - parts of a stem, leaf or root separated from the plant. Accordingly, stem, leaf and root cuttings are distinguished.

shield- cotyledon (or part of the cotyledon) of the cereal embryo, specialized for nutrients from the endosperm.

Environmental factors– environmental conditions affecting the growth, development and distribution of plants. Environmental factors include climatic (temperature, light, air, water), soil, relief, as well as the impact of other plants, animals and humans on plants.

Ecotop– a set of abiotic conditions of the inert environment of a given area, which represents the habitat of a particular community.

Endemics– species of plants and animals limited in their distribution to a certain territory.

Epiblast- a small membranous outgrowth located opposite the scutellum in the embryo of cereals.

Epiblema- single-layer covering tissue of a young root bearing root hairs.

Epicotyl- the shoot part of the embryo or seedling above the cotyledon or cotyledons, consisting of an axis ending in an apical meristem and leaf primordia.

Epiphytes– plants that settle on other plants and use them exclusively as a substrate for attachment.

Ephemeroids– perennial herbaceous plants, which, like ephemerals, are characterized by a short growing season.

Ephemera- annual herbaceous plants that complete a full development cycle in a very short and usually wet period.

Nuclear envelope- a double-membrane membrane surrounding the cell nucleus.

Nucleolus- a dense body located inside the nucleus, not separated from the nuclear juice by a shell. Consists of granular and fibrillar components. Contains protein, DNA and RNA.

Tiering– vertical division of the plant community into elements of different composition and density.

References

1. Suvorov V.V., Voronova I.N. Botany with basics of geobotany / V.V. Suvorov, I.N. Voronova. - 3rd ed. - M.: ARIS, 2012. - 520 p.

2. Andreeva I.I. Botany / I.I. Andreeva, L.S. Rodman. – 3, 4th ed. - M.: KolosS, 2010. – 488 p.

3. Yakovlev G.P. Botany: textbook for universities / G.P. Yakovlev, V.A. Chelombitko, V.I. Dorofeev; edited by R.V. Camelina. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional – St. Petersburg: SpetsLit, 2008. – 689 p.

4. Guidelines for the study of botanical nomenclature / N.M. Naida. – St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State Agrarian University, 2008. – 16 p.

5. Botanical geography with the basics of plant ecology. Textbook for universities / V.G. Khrzhanovsky, S.V. Viktorov, P.V. Litvak, B.S. Rodionov, L.S. Rodman. - 2nd, revised. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1994. – 240 s.

6. Terminology of growth and development of higher plants / M.Kh.Chailakhyan, R.G.Butenko, O.N.Kulaeva. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – 96 p.

Let me remind you that the Latin language belongs to the Latin-Falian subgroup of Italic languages ​​(the languages ​​of the tribes that, from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, lived on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, except for the Etruscans, Ligurians, Celts and Greeks). The Italic languages, in turn, belong to the family of Indo-European languages. Initially, Latin was the language of a small tribe - the Latins, living in the center of the Apennine Peninsula. This information may be of interest when taking a closer look at the Latin alphabet.

Origins of the Latin alphabet

Influence of the Etruscan alphabet

The Etruscan culture was well known to the Latins. In the 9-8 centuries BC, the relatively small territory of Latium bordered on the north with the then significant territory of the Etruscan tribe (they are also Tusks or Tosks, now the Italian province of Tuscany). At a time when the culture of the Latins was just emerging, the culture of the Etruscans was already experiencing its heyday.

The Latins borrowed quite a lot from the Etruscans. The Etruscan writing had a right-to-left direction, so for convenience, the reverse (compared to the usual Latin) spelling of letters was used (naturally, this was the original spelling; we use the reverse version).

Influence of the Greek alphabet

The Greek alphabet also made a significant contribution to the formation of modern Latin. It is worth mentioning that the Etruscan alphabet was partially borrowed from Western Greek. But direct borrowing from Greek into Latin began later, when the Romans, in their characteristic style, began a thorough acquaintance with Greek culture. Greek names and names contained sounds that were not characteristic of Roman phonetics; there were no letters in the Latin language to write them, so Greek letters were also transferred to the Latin alphabet. This is the origin of the letters "x", "y", "z".

Ancient Greek inscriptions were also made not only from left to right, but also from right to left and boustrophedon (the Greeks gave the name to this type of writing), therefore in the ancient Greek language there were both direct and reverse variants of writing letters at the same time.

Influence of Phoenician consonantal writing

The Phoenicians are considered the creators of the first phonetic writing. The Phoenician alphabet was a syllabary alphabet in which one symbol denoted the combination of one consonant sound with any vowel (It is often said that the Phoenicians wrote down only consonants, but this assumption is formally incorrect). The Phoenicians traveled a lot, settled in more and more new places... and their writing traveled and took root with them. Gradually, spreading in different directions, the symbols of the Phoenician alphabet were transformed, on the one hand, into the letters of the Greek and then the Latin alphabet, and on the other, into the letters of Hebrew (and other northern Semitic dialects).

Comparative table of symbols of related languages ​​(Commentary see below in the text)

The conclusions drawn from the results of comparing all these languages ​​are different. The issue of continuity has not been completely resolved, however, the similarity of independent ancient languages ​​suggests that there may have been one progenitor language. Many researchers tend to look for it in Canaan, a semi-mythical state that the Phoenicians considered their homeland.

History of the Latin alphabet

The first Latin inscriptions available to modern researchers date back to the 7th century BC. Since that time, it has been customary to talk about archaic Latin. The archaic alphabet consists of 21 letters. The Greek letters theta, phi and psi were used to write the numbers 100, 1000, 50.

Having become a censor in 312 BC, Appius Claudius Caecus introduced differences in the writing of the letters “r” and “s” and abolished the letter “z”, and the sound denoted by this letter was replaced by [r]. Closely related to this event is one of the basic laws of phonetics of the Latin language - the law of rhotacism.

After the abolition of the letter "z", the Latin alphabet of the classical period contains 20 letters.

In the 1st century BC, the letter "z" was borrowed again, and with it the letter "y". In addition, the letter “g” was finally recognized (before this, both sounds: voiced - [g] and voiceless - [k] were designated by one letter - “c”). Of course, there were some disputes, but it is generally accepted that Spurius Carvilius Ruga was the first to use it in 235 BC, however, at that time it was not included in the alphabet.

The alphabet began to consist of 23 letters.

Another important event in the history of the Latin alphabet occurs in the 1st century AD. Using the practice of replacing the most common combinations of letters with one symbol, which was widespread in Greece, the future emperor Claudius (since 41 AD, being a censor) introduced three new letters, later called “Claudian”: reverse digamma, antisigma and half ha.

The reverse digamma was to be used to indicate the sound [in:].

Antisigma - to denote combinations of bs and ps, similar to the Greek letter psi.

Half ha - to indicate the sound between [i] and [u].

They never made it into the alphabet.

Nevertheless:

1. The codes for these characters are included in Unicode: u+2132, u+214e - reverse digamma, u+2183, u+2184 - antisigma, u+2c75, u+2c76 - half ha.
2. The letters “y” and “v”, which were completely defined in the alphabet somewhat later, became analogues of two of the three Claudian letters, which indicates the validity of the proposal of the future emperor.

Much later, the issue with pairs of letters “i” - “j”, “v” - “u” was resolved. Both pairs were used in writing before, and denoted two pairs of sounds ([i] - [th], [v] - [y]), but it was not clearly defined which spelling denotes which sound. The separation of the first couple supposedly occurred in the 16th century AD, and the second in the 18th century (although some researchers suggest that this happened simultaneously for both couples).

The modern version of the Latin alphabet, consisting of 25 letters, was formalized during the Renaissance (hence the assumption of the separation of "v" and "u" in the 16th century, since they are both contained in this variant). This event is closely connected with the name of Petrus Ramus.

The digraph "vv", especially common in Northern Europe, became the letter "w". The sound denoted by this letter came from the Germanic languages ​​after the fall of the Roman Empire, so many experts do not include the letter “w” in the Latin alphabet or include it conditionally.

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Why translate Russian letters into Latin?

Since Russia is not yet a very rich country and most companies cannot afford to organize the distribution of free samples to advertise their products, at the moment most offers for freebies come from abroad.

Since the most common language is English, order forms for free samples are often in English.

The address information and full name of the recipient in such forms must be filled out in Latin. Since both our postmen and those companies that distribute freebies will understand the Latin alphabet.

If you write in Russian, then there is a risk that the organizers of the action simply will not want to spend time translating and understanding what is written there.

If you write in English, then our postmen will not understand who and where to deliver.

The best option is to write the freebie delivery address and the full name of the freebie recipient in Latin.

Now the Internet is full of different translators, but most of them are either not convenient or take a long time to search for.

We suggest constantly using our free translator of Russian text into Latin.

When you order freebies through forms written in English, write the delivery address and full name in Latin.

Our free, simple and convenient service will allow you to translate Russian text into Latin. When we order samples from foreign sites, we always do this and get a freebie, not always of course :-), but it comes. So the method is correct.