Internal and external factors influencing the evolution of language. Internal and external factors of language development
We have characterized here some features of language development, due to its belonging to the class of complex dynamic systems. The description of the properties of language associated with its systemic nature not in diachrony, but in synchrony, is the subject of a separate study.
The role of internal and external factors of language development
and the question of their classification
A serious shortcoming of many works on historical linguistics, writes K. Togeby, was the attempt to explain the evolution of language as a result of the action of any one factor. Other linguists - E. Coseriu, M. I. Steblin-Kamensky - also objected to the desire to necessarily connect various changes with a single universal cause. But not all linguists agree with this point of view. If<217>leaving aside those scientists who believe that the problem of causation has no right to be considered within our science at all, or those who believe that “the question of the causes of linguistic changes is not essential for the science of language,” it can be noted that the opinions There are three different points of view on this issue.
The first of them is that all changes in language are caused by extralinguistic reasons, primarily by the conditions of existence of the society in which the language exists. Criticizing neogrammarians for trying to discover the causes of changes in the individual psychology of the speaker, A. Sommerfelt directly points out that all the various factors of change are ultimately social in nature. Sometimes such a straightforward concept is modified in the sense that its supporters, while recognizing the possibility of identifying a number of internal causes of evolution, believe at the same time that even behind these internal causes there are exgralinguistic factors. Often, a decisive role in the emergence and spread of linguistic transformations is attributed to such a factor as communicative needs.
Introduction to the work
The traditional comparative-historical paradigm of linguistics, which turned the study of language into an independent science, aimed at reconstructing the proto-language using methods of internal and external comparison of linguistic data. A logical continuation of these methods is the potential possibility of reconstructing the stages of language evolution and considering them in a contrasting aspect to identify general patterns of development.
The modern period of development of diachronic research in the field of Germanic languages is marked by the appearance of a number of works in which the historical development of the language is presented as a statement of changes at different levels of its system (Baugh, Cable 2002; Blake 2006; Gelderen 2006; Hogg, Denison 2006; Horobin, Smith 2002 ; Moser 1985; Polenz 2000; Romaine 2007; Singh 2005; Schmidt 2000; Sonderegger 1979; Wolf 1981; Wolman 2008, etc.) These works are complemented by classical studies carried out by Russian linguists (Admoni 1963; Arakin 1985, 2000; Abram ov 2001; Afanasyeva 2000; Berkov 1996, 2006; Bloch 2003; Gurevich 2003; Gukhman 1983; Zinder 1965, 1968; Ilyish 1968; Zhirmunsky 1965; Zelenetsky 2004; Ivanova 2001; Rastorgueva 2003; Steblin-Kamensky 1953, 1955; Filicheva 1959; Zimmerling 1996, 2002; Yartseva 1969.) Meanwhile, general issues of the evolution of Germanic languages and the reconstruction of its individual stages remain insufficiently studied.
Object of study is the language of literary monuments in English and German on three diachronic sections (ancient, middle and modern) and in two parallels: prose and poetry.
Subject of research is the behavior of the language systems of two Germanic languages in diachrony in order to clarify the main, typologically significant phenomena and trends.
Research material compiled a total of 19 texts in English and German.
The relevance of research is due to a new approach to theoretical rethinking of the problem of general patterns of evolution of language systems, addressing the issue of reconstructing the main stages of language development, clarifying scientific ideas about a single universal path of evolution of language systems in diachrony. An understanding of the linguistic stratification of the actualized state of language systems and the isomorphism of the diachronic behavior of level elements is proposed.
Hypothesis This work is that a comparative analysis of the behavior of the language systems of English and German reveals general patterns of language development and creates a basis for identifying stages of language evolution. The direction of evolution for these languages is the same, but the rate of language changes is not the same, due to the influence of internal and external factors.
Purpose of the study is to identify the influence of external and internal factors on the formation of typologically significant stages in the evolution of the morphology of the language system of the English and German languages.
Achieving this goal involves solving a set of the following tasks:
select a limited number of the most significant typological factors influencing systemic changes in language in diachrony;
to find out the taxonomics of structural levels according to the degree of their activity/passivity, their compensatory, limiting or parity properties in order to clarify the isomorphism of their constitutional, syntagmatic and paradigmatic characteristics;
to clarify the role and significance of units of individual levels in the process of self-regulation of the language system;
identify the main stages and trends in the development of English and German language systems over a certain period of linguistic time, sufficient for updating innovative trends;
analyze the mechanisms and conditions for the development of the language system of English and German;
show the typological universality of the processes of self-regulation of the morphology of language systems in diachrony.
Research methods of the above object are quite diverse due to the different nature of the tasks being solved. The following are used comprehensively in our work: descriptive-analytical method, which involves the analysis of the language material being studied followed by generalization of the results obtained; system research method, aimed at studying language as a level system; contrast analysis method in combination with descriptive-analytical method allowed us to demonstrate the dynamics of the process of formation of morphology in English and German; quantitative method research is being supplemented comparative analysis quantitative indicators of Greenberg Indexes.
Methodological basis of the study amounted to:
Works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay on general problems of linguistics;
Monographs by E.A. Makaeva and G.P. Melnikov in the field of studying diachronic changes in language;
Works on specific issues of Indo-European linguistics: K.G. Krasukhina, G.A. Menovshchikova, B.A. Serebrennikova;
Research in the field of Germanic languages: B.A. Abramova, V.D. Arakina, V.P. Berkova, M.Ya. Blokha, V.V. Gurevich, M.M. Gukhman, B.A. Ilyisha, V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.L. Zelenetsky, L.R. Zinder, E.S. Kubryakova, E.A. Makaeva, T.A. Rastorgueva, A.I. Smirnitsky, M.I. Steblin-Kamensky, N.I. Filicheva, A.V. Zimmerlinga, V.N. Yartseva.
Scientific novelty thesis is determined by a description of the mechanism of evolution of the language system. The work identifies and substantiates its stages and proposes a diagram of these stages. General patterns of development of the language system over time have been established. The concept of “level model of a language system” has been expanded, to which a functional component has been added. The factors of internal and external plans and their influence on the diachronic development of language are analyzed.
Main provisions submitted for defense:
The course of linguistic evolution is influenced by external and internal factors. The impact of these factors on language development varies across different diachronic sections. Before the Great Migration, the ancient Germanic languages were located on the territory of Europe and were characterized by general diachronic trends.
The formation of the system of Old English and Old High German proceeded in accordance with the influence of the environment and the course of internal self-development. The direction of internal processes in these languages was the same, but the external conditions were different. English was transferred to the island of Britain, while High German remained one of the languages of Europe.
The ability of different language systems for self-development is different, due to the influence of external factors. Language contact can have an inhibitory or accelerating effect on the evolution of language.
Self-regulation of the language system is one of the important internal factors influencing language development. Different levels have different abilities to perceive, accumulate and assimilate innovations. The phonological level is relatively open. The phonological system was the first to actively accumulate innovations. The fixation of stress on the root morpheme and the subsequent weakening of inflection became one of the most important innovations.
Phonological changes have led to the restructuring of morphological paradigms in the English and German language systems. External factors have had a stronger impact on the diachronic development of the English language system than on the German language system. The insular position and further contact with the language of the Scandinavian Vikings and Normans led to an accelerated pace of language change.
Recognizing the fact of the self-sufficiency of the language system, it is possible to trace the causes of systemic development and identify its stages. By stating the typology of these stages, if similar trends are found, it is possible to determine the universal stages of evolution for a certain group of languages.
During the reconstruction of the processes of evolution of the two Germanic languages, common trends are found, but the speed of actualization of language changes is not the same, due to the interaction of external and internal factors.
Theoretical significance of the study. The study of evolutionary trends reveals new facets of the existence of the language system, both at the synchronous and diachronic levels, which is of interest for the further development of diachronic linguistics. The inclusion of the stages of the evolution of the language system in the range of typological studies will make a certain contribution to the theoretical rethinking of the issues of language diachrony. The development of the ideas contained in the dissertation can be continued on the material of other areas of linguistic knowledge and confirmed by various linguistic material. The results obtained in the course of linguistic analysis can be used to correct diachronic concepts. The material collected and systematized quantitatively is important for the linguistic prognostic characteristics of the evolution of the language system in general.
Practical significance of the study. New general theoretical and applied conclusions can be used as basic or problematic for further diachronic studies of ancient and modern languages, reconstruction of their retrospective and prospective state. The work is of applied importance in terms of correction of university teaching courses on the theory and history of language. The main provisions and conclusions of the dissertation research can be applied in lecture courses and in seminars on general linguistics, diachronic linguistics, comparative studies and the history of Germanic languages. Specific results of the work can be recommended to students, graduate students in order to improve the scientific level, and also be used when writing works on German studies, language theory and comparative historical linguistics.
Approbation of the study was held in the form of reports at international and Russian scientific conferences at the universities of Belgorod (1996 - 2011), Zaporozhye (2002; 2003), Kharkov (2003), Voronezh (2004), Moscow (2004; 2005), Severodvinsk (2004), Rostov ( 2005), Kursk (2005), Armavir (2005), Volgograd (2005), Rostov-on-Don (2006). The results of the dissertation research were discussed at the annual scientific conferences and meetings of the department of the second foreign language of the Belgorod State University.
The dissertation materials are reflected in 47 publications with a total volume of about 80 printed sheets, including two monographs, two dictionaries, 43 articles, including twelve articles in scientific publications recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia.
Scope and structure of work. The structure, content and scope of the dissertation work are determined by the main goal and objectives. The dissertation consists of an introduction, four chapters, a conclusion, a bibliographic list and appendices.
In modern linguistics, the concept of the laws of language development is not clearly defined, since many language changes do not form a constant ascending line associated with the development of the language. In the most general terms, the laws of language development are defined as constant and regular trends in the development of languages along the path of their improvement. At the same time, there are external factors influencing the development of the language, and internal incentives for its evolution, associated with the characteristics of the language system.
External laws of language development. External laws of language development are determined by social factors that influence both the development of language and the nature of its functioning. There are two main social processes, two main social trends in the development of language - differentiation (from Latin differentia - difference) and integration (from Latin integratio< integer- целый). Эти процессы противоположны друг другу. При differentiation, otherwise it is called divergence (from the Latin di-vergere< diverqens - расходящийся в разные стороны), или discrepancy, there is a territorial and social distribution of native speakers, resulting in the emergence of related languages and dialects. At integration, they call it differently convergence(from Latin convergere - to approach, converge), or toe-in territorial and social rapprochement of native speakers is carried out, during which the unification of languages and dialects takes place. Differentiation increases the number of languages; integration, on the contrary, reduces their number.
Differentiation and integration are social linguistic processes, since the divergence and convergence of languages, their mixing and crossing are explained by economic, military, political and other social factors. It is these reasons that give rise to the originality of languages, acting as external laws of their historical development. As a result of the migration of peoples, their trade contacts, wars, changes in the social and economic system, there are changes in the functions and structure of a particular language.
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In the structure of language, the manifestation of external laws most directly reveals itself in vocabulary. Thus, the vocabulary of the English language reflected the processes of crossing the language of the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans: words of Germanic origin denote household phenomena, raw materials, agricultural terms; words of French origin refer to the sphere of law, military affairs, art, state government. This division of vocabulary reflects the social fragmentation of society at that time, since the conquerors constituted the elite of society, and the indigenous population formed mainly a layer of farmers and artisans. During the Renaissance, the Italian language had a great influence on the vocabulary of a number of Western European languages, since it was during this period that Italy experienced rapid economic and cultural development, and the ideas of the Renaissance spread throughout Europe.
The sound structure of a language and its grammatical system, although to a lesser extent and not so clearly, reflect the influence of external laws on the development of a particular language. For example, the sound [f] originally existed in Russian speech as a feature of borrowed words: Pharisee, February, philosopher and so on. Over time, this sound began to act as a positional version of the phoneme<в>: [f] Tornik, love[f"]b and so on. Indeclinable nouns in the Russian language initially constituted a special group of borrowed words. Over time, the number of such words increased, many of them were adopted by the language. As a result, a grammatical group of indeclinable nouns arose in the Russian language.
A distinction is made between the spontaneous influence of social factors on the development of language and the conscious influence of society on language. The purposeful influence of society on language includes, first of all, the language policy of the state, designed to promote the most effective functioning of the language (languages) in various spheres of its application. The scope of society's intervention in the development of language also includes the creation of writing and alphabets, the development of terminology, spelling and punctuation rules, and other normalization activities.
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Thus, external conditions - spontaneous or conscious - always influence language, and language responds to these requirements in the way that intralingual capabilities allow.
Internal laws of language development. If we consider the historical development not of the language as a whole, but of its various structural aspects, for example, phonetics and grammar, its individual units and categories, then it is not always possible to see a direct dependence of the development of language on the development of society. It is difficult, for example, to explain the loss of nasal vowels in East Slavic languages by direct influence on the language from society. It is not possible to deduce changes in the Russian verbal system from the conditions of the economic, political or cultural life of Russian society of that era. These specific patterns of development of units and categories of language are called internal laws of language development. Internal laws primarily determine changes in the phonetics and grammatical structure of the language.
Like everything in a language, its sound side undergoes changes throughout history. The sound appearance of individual words and morphemes and their phonemic composition change. For example, in the Russian language, the nasal vowels that once existed have disappeared; as a result of two palatalizations, the back lingual consonants have changed g, k, x under certain conditions in f, h, w And z, c, s.
A long period of development is required to change the syllabic organization of a language. Such changes occur over centuries. The early development of the Proto-Slavic language was associated with the elimination of closed syllables inherited from the common Indo-European era. All closed syllables in one way or another were rebuilt into open syllables over a certain period. Later, the law of the open syllable began to be violated, and in modern Slavic languages the closed syllable is again presented. With the change in the syllabic organization in the Slavic languages, the development of stress is also associated. Thus, the free verbal stress of the common Slavic era in modern Czech and Slovak has been replaced by a fixed stress on the initial syllable of a word. In Polish, the stress began to be fixed on the penultimate syllable.
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Sound changes observed in the history of languages, Yu.S. Maslov divided into regular and sporadic. TO sporadic he referred to phonetic changes represented only in individual words or morphemes. Such changes are explained by any special conditions for the functioning of these words or morphemes. Thus, formulas of politeness, greetings when meeting or parting are subject to severe phonetic destruction: they are often pronounced quickly, carelessly, since their content is already clear. Therefore, the old English formula for goodbye Good be with you! - May God be with you! evolved into Good-bye - goodbye; Hallo in the American version - in Hey, Good-bye - V Bye-bye. Spanish honorific address formula Vuestra Merced-Your Grace as a result of sporadic phonetic changes, it became Usted - You. Write in Russian Hello, but they say hello or even grow up.
Regular changes appear in a certain phonological unit in a certain phonetic position in all cases when such a position is present in the language, regardless of the specific words and forms in which it occurs. In the presence of such a regular change, they usually speak of a sound, or phonetic, law. For example, replacing Old Russian combinations hey, hey, hey modern combinations gi, ki, hee fits the concept of sound law, since it touched almost all words with the following combinations: instead of gybnuti, goddesses, Kiev, cunning, kypeti, predator arose perish, goddess, Kyiv, cunning, boil, predator etc.
Sound laws are purely historical and do not have the universal character that is inherent in the laws of natural sciences. The sound law operates at a certain time, in a certain place and is valid only for a specific language or dialect. Therefore, for example, words that entered the Russian language later were no longer subject to the sound law noted above: akyn, kyzylbashi, Kyzylkum, kyyak, Hungnam(city and port in Korea), Gydansky(bay), etc. While the sound law is in effect, it is alive. An example of a living sound law is the Russian and Belarusian "akane", that is, the replacement O stressed syllable on a in an unstressed syllable: waters - water, legs- naga. Over the course of
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Over time, the current phonetic law can become historical, leaving its results in the language: shifts in sound, alternation of phonemes, dropouts of sounds, etc.
The grammar of the language is also subject to historical changes, which may be of a different nature. They can concern the entire grammatical system as a whole, and only certain grammatical categories and forms. For example, in the Romance languages, the former Latin system of declension and conjugation gave way to analytical forms of expressing grammatical meanings using function words and word order. In the Russian language during the XIV-XVII centuries. The verbal system of tenses was rebuilt - from eight ancient to three new ones. In grammatical development, changes by analogy also take place, which are expressed in the assimilation of some grammatical forms to others. Thus, in the history of the Russian language, as a result of the action of the law of analogy, instead of the five ancient types of declension, three declensions remained.
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TEXTBOOKS AND TUTORIALS
1. Budagov R. A. Introduction to the science of language. 2nd ed. M., 1965.
2. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.
3. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics. 4th ed. M., 1983.
4. Kodukhov V.I.
5. Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1987.
6. Norman B.Yu., Pavlenko N.A. Introduction to linguistics. Reader. 2nd ed. Mn., 1984.
7. Pavlenko N.A. History of writing. 2nd ed. Mn., 1987.
8. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. 5th ed. M., 1996.
9. Yakushkin B.V. Hypotheses about the origin of language. M., 1984.
COLLECTIONS OF PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES, METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Zinder L.R. Introduction to linguistics. Collection of problems. M., 1987.
2. Kalabina S.I. Workshop on the course "Introduction to linguistics". 2nd ed. M, 1985.
3. Kodukhov V.I. Assignments for practical classes and tests on "Introduction to Linguistics". M., 1976.
4. Kondratov N.A., Koposov L.F., Ruposova L.P. Collection of tasks and exercises for introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1991.
5. Murat V.P. Introduction to linguistics. Methodical instructions. 6th ed. M., 1988.
6. Norman B.Y. Collection of problems for introduction to linguistics. Mn., 1989.
7. Panov A.E. Introduction to linguistics. Test work, assignments and guidelines for independent work. M., 1984.
8. Peretrukhin V.N. Introduction to linguistics. Guide to working on the course. M., 1984.
REFERENCES
1. Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. M., 1966.
2. Belarusian language Encyclopedia /Pad red. AND I. Mikhnevich. Mn., 1994.
3. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990.
4. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. 2nd ed. M., 1976.
5. Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1979.
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As was shown in the previous paragraph, a language develops mainly under the influence of the needs of the linguistic community that speaks it. However, there are also internal reasons for language changes, i.e.
E. such development factors that are embedded in the language system itself.
The internal causes of language changes are associated with the presence of contradictions organically inherent in the structure of language and its functioning, the struggle between which can cause changes in language. Such contradictions in linguistics are usually called antinomies (from the Greek antinomia ‘contradiction in the law’). The most important of the antinomies that can cause language changes are the antinomy of speaker and listener, the antinomy of system and norm, the antinomy of code and text, and the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness.
The antinomy of the speaker and the listener lies in the fact that the interests of the speaker are met by the maximum economy of effort in speaking, which manifests itself in all sorts of abbreviated and incomplete ways of transmitting information. At the same time, the interests of the listener correspond, on the contrary, to sufficient completeness of expression, which guarantees that everything heard will be understood by him correctly.
Changes in language can serve either the interests of the speaker or the interests of the listener. In the first case, simplifications occur in the pronunciation of words and the construction of sentences, as well as the formation of abbreviated names (such as the words voenkor 'military correspondent', glavkoverekh 'supreme commander-in-chief', land department 'land department', characteristic of the Russian language in the first decades of the 20th century), in in the second case, on the contrary, the distribution of full forms of words and sentences, and in particular the formation of descriptive titles such as safety engineer, deputy director of personnel or department for combating organized crime.
The antinomy of system and norm is due to the fact that the potential capabilities of a language system are always richer than the set of linguistic signs and rules for their combination that is accepted by a given language community. Thus, the Russian language system allows the formation of future participles (such as *writing, *building)" or forms of gerunds such as *trya, *mogya, *zhgya, while such forms are not accepted by the norm of the Russian language.
In some cases, the antinomy of the system and the norm can be resolved in favor of the system, and then the prohibitions on the use of some potentially possible units in the language are lifted. It is precisely this lifting of prohibitions that can explain the increasing spread in the modern Russian language of forms of the nominative plural of nouns ending in a (z): at present, not only the original forms of the words bakers, workshops, mechanics, sectors, spotlights have become widespread, but also new ones: bakers , workshop, mechanic, sector, spotlight. In other cases
1 Asterisk (*), or the so-called asterisk (from Greek.
Aster ‘star’)”, which is placed before the beginning of a word or linguistic expression, denotes in linguistics hypothetical units that are not actually recorded in verbal communication.
In some cases, the antinomy in question is resolved in favor of the norm, and then some linguistic units that are allowed by the system, but do not correspond to the norm, fall out of use. It was as a result of the resolution of the antinomy under consideration in favor of the norm in the Russian language of the 20th century. Declined forms of surnames of Ukrainian origin in -ko, -enko have fallen out of use. If in the fiction of the 19th century. one could find forms like Shevchenko, k Danilenko, and Nikitenko, but now the norm has defeated the system and requires the use of forms like Shevchenko, k Danilenko, and Nikitenko.
The antinomy of code and text consists in the contradiction between a set of linguistic units and rules for their connection (code) and the text that is built from these units. The more units in the code, the shorter the text, and vice versa.
In cases where the antinomy is resolved in favor of simplifying the text, the code becomes more complicated due to new units, but the text becomes shorter. Thus, the appearance in the Russian language of the late 20th century. a number of new borrowings complicate the code and at the same time serve as a means of shortening the text. For example, the word barter is much shorter than the descriptive expression for the same concept - direct exchange of goods or services, the word grant is shorter than the descriptive expression additional funding for scientific research provided on a competitive basis, and the word impeachment is shorter than the expression deprivation of the powers of senior officials in connection with gross violations of the law. On the contrary, if the antinomy of code and text is resolved in favor of simplifying the code, the text becomes longer. It is precisely because of the simplification of the code that before our eyes such kinship terms as brother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law are leaving the Russian language, being replaced by more cumbersome descriptive designations brother of wife, brother of husband, sister of husband or son’s wife.
Finally, the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness is manifested in the contradiction between the informational and emotive functions of language. The information function requires the use of regular, standard language means that make speech unambiguous and accurate. However, such speech is only minimally capable of conveying emotions. The emotive function of language, on the contrary, is based on the use of unusual, non-standard linguistic means for the addressee.
It is the emotive function of the language that is the reason for the enrichment of the language with such figurative expressions as golden autumn, the sound of waves, a hail of bullets, or phraseological units (hold a stone in your bosom, bring it to a white heat, cast a fishing rod, etc.).
Internal reasons for the development of language (Serebrennikov):
1. Adaptation of the language mechanism to the physiological characteristics of the human body. For example, a tendency towards easier pronunciation, a tendency towards unification of grammatical forms of words, a tendency towards saving linguistic means.
2. The need to improve the language mechanism. For example, in the process of development in a language, redundant means of expression or those that have lost their function are eliminated.
3. The need to preserve the language in a state of communicative suitability.
4. Resolution of internal contradictions in language, etc.
But not all scientists agree to accept internal causes. Since language is a social and psychophysiological phenomenon. Without such conditions it cannot develop. Language development is driven by external factors.
External factors of language development (Golovin, Berezin):
1. Related to the development of society. The interaction of different peoples plays a big role, which is caused by migration, wars, etc. The interaction of languages and their dialects is the most important stimulus for their development.
There are two types of interaction between languages: differentiation and integration.
Differentiation– divergence of languages and dialects due to the settlement of peoples over vast territories.
Integration- convergence of different languages. There are 3 types of integration: coexistence, mixing and crossing of languages.
Coexistence- this is a long-term and stable mutual influence of adjacent languages, as a result of which some stable common features develop in their structure.
Mixing- unite into linguistic unions. Unlike coexistence mixing- this is a type of mutual influence when two languages collide along their historical path, have a significant influence on each other, and then diverge and continue to exist independently.
There are different degrees of confusion of languages:
Easy degree of mixing. High – observed in hybrid ersatz languages.
Crossing is the layering of two languages, in which one language dissolves in the other. That is, from two parent languages a third is born. As a rule, this is the result of ethnic mixing by the carrier. One people absorbs another. As a result, the transition from one language to another is accompanied by bilingualism.
Substrate and superstrate.
Suspstrat- elements of the language of a defeated people in a language that was transformed by crossing two other languages.
Superstrat– elements of the winners’ language formed in the third language.
A variety of languages are developing. Development of language at its different stages:
1. Phonetic-phonological changes. They are carried out more slowly than the others. The factors are largely determined by the language system.
4 types of functional changes: a) the differential characteristics of phonemes may change, as a result of which the composition of phonemes changes (loss of prebreathing, palatality and labialization - 6 phonemes remain); b) changes in the compatibility of phonemes. For example, the principle of increasing sonority has disappeared - as a result, unusual combinations of phonemes are now possible; c) change or reduction of phoneme variants. For example, with the advent of reduction, vowels began to drop out; d) individual changes in specific speech; all changes grow from the individual speech of native speakers.
Reasons for phonetic changes:
1. System factor – internal logic of system development (assimilation – loss of ь,ъ, closure of syllables, etc.).
2. Articulatory-acoustic conditions of speech activity (nasal consonants have disappeared).
3. Social factor – has the least influence, but changes also depend on the person speaking.
2. Changes in grammar. They are caused to a greater extent not by external reasons, but by the influence of systemic factors.
1. A change in form is associated with a change in content (many forms of declension have been lost - now the gender is important).
2. Process of analogy ( doctor– originally masculine, but now possibly feminine, that is, the compatibility has changed).
3. Distribution of functions between similar elements (previously there was a branched system of tenses).
These were internal factors.
External factors: as a result of interaction between speakers of different languages, a change in grammar may occur (as a result of the penetration of elements from another language). External factors in b O influence vocabulary to a greater extent.
3. Lexical changes are caused by external reasons. Types of lexical changes:
1. Morphemic derivation - the formation of a new word from available morphemic material (computer +ization).
2. Lexico-semantic derivation:
a) the formation of a new meaning of a word as a result of rethinking the old one;
b) the emergence of a new word as a result of rethinking the previous word.
3. Lexico-syntactic derivation - a combination of words “crosses” into one (today, immediately).
4. Compression - there was a combination of words with a common meaning, but the meaning of one word was lost, the meaning of the phrase was preserved by the remaining word (complex - inferiority complex).
5. Borrowing - when a word is borrowed from another language. One of the varieties is tracing (morphemic translation) (skyscraper - sky building), another variety is semantic tracing (we borrow the meaning of the word) (in French - nail - a bright sight, hence: highlight of the program).
6. Loss of a lexeme - the word leaves the language.
7. The process of archaization of a word (left the language) or meaning (godina).
8. Change in the stylistic or semantic marking of a word.
9. The process of developing the stability of individual combinations of lexemes.
10. Development of idiomaticity of individual combinations of lexemes (integrity of meaning and non-derivability from the meanings of the components) (Indian summer - the warm season in the autumn).
The development of the Russian language is influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors in b O to a greater extent due to changes in vocabulary, and to a lesser extent – in phonetics and grammar.
