Executive Editor Dr. Ist. sciences, prof. V.A. Muravyov

Explanatory note

The object of studying historical chronology is historical sources containing information about certain units or methods of measuring time. The subject of the course is systems for measuring and counting time, their origin and evolution in various cultures, their relationship with each other.

The objectives of the course are 1) to determine the place of historical chronology in the system of modern humanitarian knowledge; 2) to form in the student a systematic understanding of the place of the concepts of time and its calculation in the cultural and historical development of society, to consider the basic principles and methods of calculating time and its recording in historical sources generated by various civilizations; 3) provide systematic knowledge about the principles, method and technology of studying chronological indications contained in historical sources or indications of the time of occurrence of certain events; 4) develop the skills of converting dates from various time systems to dates of the modern Gregorian calendar or correlating the dates of various time systems and calendars. A course in historical chronology should prepare the student to solve the problems of determining the authenticity, time and place of creation, attribution of historical sources, determining and clarifying the dates of historical events, analyzing the content of historical sources using chronological indications.

This program consists of two sections - “Historical chronology as a scientific discipline”, which involves a comprehensive study of ideas about time and methods of measuring and counting it, and historical chronology is considered as one of the methods of humanitarian scientific knowledge; and the section “Russian Chronology”, where this method is applied to a complex of ancient Russian and Russian historical sources of the 11th–20th centuries.

The course program "Historical Chronology" was created on the basis of the course program "Auxiliary historical disciplines" (1962, compiled by E.I. Kamentsev, A.T. Nikolaev; executive editor A.T. Nikolaev), which was republished with changes and additions for history departments of state universities and pedagogical institutes in 1968, 1971, 1977, 1981, 1987 and 1988.

CHRONOLOGY AS A HISTORICAL DISCIPLINE

The concept of time. Mathematical and historical chronology

Chronology, its object, subject and methods. Mathematical (astronomical) chronology and historical chronology. The concept of time as a subject for the study of astronomical chronology. Time in chronology systems and the cultural and anthropological picture of the world. Natural scientific methods of studying time. Methods for studying time counting systems and their relationships. Methods for studying the perception of time by civilizations, cultures, and people in modern humanitarian knowledge. The subject of historical chronology and its tasks. Methods of historical chronology. Development of technology for working with dates from historical sources.

Time as a historical category. Time as a physical quantity and its irreversibility. Time as a measure of duration. Time in the life of a person and society. Time as the idea of ​​an ordered sequence in the consciousness of man and society. Time as a cultural and anthropological category. Time as an obligatory element in understanding the picture of the world by society, culture, and civilization. Specifics of time perception (cultural, ethnic, gender).

Comparative approaches to the study of time. Models of time. Rhythm as a condition for models of perception and time tracking. Astronomical rhythms (cycles). Biorhythms (time in the life of animals and plants). The sense of time in biological organisms and discussions about their origin. Biological and psychological time in human life. Discussions about time as a cultural category, historical or physical concept. Time models: cyclical and linear.

Structure of time. Ecological and social (structural) time. Ecological time as a process of ordering the activities of man and nature. The cyclical nature of ecological time. Flexibility of environmental calendars. Anthropocentricity of environmental calendars. The social basis of the structural perception of time. Structuring time in connection with types of human activity. The relationship between structural time and the perception of history.

Perception of time. Peculiarities of perception and recording of time in tribal communities. Features of the perception of time in the mythological picture of the world. The concept of cyclical time. Dialogue of nature and culture in the cyclical perception of time. The emergence of linear perception of time and its direction in various cultures of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. Ideas about time in the context of the formation of the worldview of the Renaissance. Peculiarities of time perception in modern times. The category of time in the theories of Marxism and evolutionism. A. Einstein's theory of relativity and changes in the perception of time in modern times. Existentialism and the perception of time. Changes in ideas about time in connection with the development of natural and mathematical sciences.

Objectives of chronology as a historical discipline. Chronology as a method of modern humanitarian knowledge. Exploring ideas about time in different cultures. Problems of the formation and development of time systems in the context of changes in ideas about the picture of the world, in religious, economic, cultural, political aspects.

Establishing relationships between different time systems. Methods of working with calendar and chronological information from historical sources. Methods for converting dates from historical sources to a modern time system. The tasks of chronology are to compile chronological tables, reveal the relationship and sequence of historical events.

Chronology in the system of scientific knowledge of the world. The place of chronology in the formation of ideas and knowledge about the picture of the world. Chronology in the system of natural science knowledge. The relationship between chronology and astronomy. Chronology and physics. Chronology and astrophysics. Chronology and biology. Chronology and paleontology. Chronology in the system of exact sciences. Chronology and mathematics. Chronology and electronics. Chronology in the system of humanitarian knowledge. Chronology and history of science. Chronology and astrology. Chronology and anthropology. Chronology and archeology. Chronology and ethnography. Chronology and linguistics. Chronology and religious studies. Chronology and cultural studies. Chronology as a historical discipline. Chronology and metrology. Chronology and source study.

Counting and time perception

Origin of time counting systems. Methods of counting time in the context of social, economic and political history. Methods of observation and time counting. The connection between methods of measuring time and astronomical and natural phenomena. The relationship between natural and biological rhythms and the ritual calendar. Coordination of the annual cycle of agricultural work with natural phenomena. Features of time tracking in different cultures.

Counting time in preliterate cultures. Oral and material sources on the recording of time in preliterate cultures. "Works and Days" by Hesiod. Personification of time. Time in cosmogonic myths ("Enuma elish", "Theogony" of Hesiod, "Book of Genesis" of the Old Testament, etc.). Features of ideas about time in the epic.

Connection of time systems with the development of knowledge in the field of astronomy. The most ancient religious and astronomical structures and their study (Stonehenge, pyramids of Ancient Egypt, buildings of Yucatan, etc.).

Written account of time. Archaeological finds containing symbolic and pictorial information, and ways of reading them as rudimentary forms of the calendar (A. Marshak, B.A. Rybakov, etc.). Peculiarities of sign recording of calendar information in preliterate cultures. Typology of “sign” calendars. Written calendars and their varieties. Calendars as the first printed publications (entirely engraved calendars: China, Korea, Japan, Western Europe; typesetting calendars by I. Guttenberg; the first printed Cyrillic poetic calendar by A. Rymsha).

Electronic time recording. Search for a unit of time measurement as a reference measure in the twentieth century. The oscillation period of a cesium atomic resonator as a time standard. The emergence of electronic calendars.

Time units

Components of time counting. Natural and artificial units of counting and measuring time. The significance of periodically recurring natural phenomena for orientation in time. Correlation of time counting units in different time counting systems.

Day. The day is the original measure of time. Daily time counting. Counting daily time by “nights”, “sunrises”, “days”, “sunsets”. Periods of daily time counting and the etymology of their names. Specifics of perception and names of parts of the day among different peoples. The beginning of the day in different cultures.

Astronomical length of the day and its changes throughout the year. True sunny days. The influence of the Earth's movement and the inclination of the Earth's daily rotation axis to the ecliptic plane on the length of the day. Average solar day. Equation of time. Sidereal day.

Standard time. "Summer time.

An hour as a unit of counting the time of day. Counting time with an oblique clock. Astronomical methods for determining the time of day. Origin of systems for dividing hours into smaller units of time. Hexadecimal and decimal counting systems for dividing hours.

Instruments for measuring daily time. Anthropological methods of measuring time of day. Sun, water, fire clocks. Mechanical watches. Digital Watch.

Month. The month as a natural and artificial unit of time. The concept of a month in different cultures and the connection of their names with economic, political, and cultural activities. Number of months in a year.

The change of phases of the Moon as a natural basis for the length of the month. Neomenia. Synodic month.

Year. The Earth's revolution around the Sun is the main annual cycle. Change of seasons. The cyclical rhythms of the seasons, the movements of the Sun, Moon, stars. The concept of seasons among different peoples. Counting years by seasons, seasonal chores. Climatic and socio-cultural seasons.

Astronomical or tropical year. Star year. Relationship between day and year. Change in the number of days in a year.

Zodiac belt of the ecliptic. Precession. Discovery of precession by Hipparchus. Movement of the vernal equinox point in the zodiacal zone during the observation of the Zodiacal belt. Zodiac constellations and astrology. Zodiac cycle and zodiac signs in the culture of different nations.

Length of the year. The beginning of the year and its correlation with economic, political, religious aspects. The problem of New Year and the relationship between different time counting systems. The problem of an "extra" year. Style of the year.

A week. Length of the week among different nations. Economic-economic and anthropocentric week. Origin of the seven-day week. Babylonian ideas about the seven wandering luminaries (planets) and their connection with each hour of the day and the control of one of the days of the week. Astronomical, astrological and religious aspects in the perception of the seven-day week among different peoples. The names of the days of the week, their semantics in different cultures. The beginning of the week in different cultures. The concept of a "day off" (God's day) in different cultures.

Artificial units of time. Society's need for artificial units of time. Economic units of time accounting (five-year plan, half-year, quarter, decade, etc.).

Artificial units of time and the perception of history. A decade as a unit of perception and assessment of time and its relationship with the calendar account of time. Century. Epoch.

Era. The emergence of the need for a time reference point in different cultures. Types of eras Eponymous, dynastic, historical, mythical eras and their relationship. Era from the Creation of the world. Era from the Nativity of Christ. Proleptic correlation of calendar systems.

Calendar systems

Types of calendars. Calendar as a logically complete time-keeping system. Astronomical basis of the calendar. Social basis of the calendar. Weekdays and holidays as the main components of the calendar. Lunar, lunisolar and solar time systems.

Lunar calendars. Length of the lunar year. The beginning of the lunar month among the peoples of the Mediterranean, Celts, Germans, Babylonians, Jews. Lunar calendar and the problem of the beginning of the year. Inconsistency of lunar cycles with the rhythm of human life.

Lunar-solar calendars. The need to coordinate lunar time counting with seasonal human work. Types of relationships between the lunar and solar cycles in the calendar system. Intercalation.

Solar calendars. The solar cycle as the basis of the calendar. Month and its duration in the solar calendar.

Sumerian calendar. Lunar-solar calendar of the Sumerians and problems of its study. The connection between the seasons and months of the calendar and the apparent movement of the Sun. The cult of the Sun as the guardian of world order. Cyclicity of time perception: connection with space and human age. The standard of the Nippur calendar and its distribution. The Nippur calendar system as a unified calendar in the south of Mesopotamia. Ritual-calendar meaning of months. Semantics of the names of the months of the Nippur calendar. The symmetry of the months of two half-years in relation to the perception of cycles. Symbolism and mythology of half-years and months as the main units of time. "Discovery" of the zodiac belt and its meaning in the Sumerian culture.

Babylonian calendar. The concept of time among the ancient Babylonians. The relationship of astronomy, astrology, numerology as sciences about the study of the peculiarities of time and the relationship in it of all things in the world. Cyclicity of time perception. Ritual calendars "Menology". The concept of happy and unhappy days. The relationship between ideas about time and ideas about the picture of the world.

Lunar-solar calculation of time. Astronomical knowledge and calendar system. Semantics and mythology of the zodiac belt. The relationship between the circles of revolution of the seven celestial bodies around the Earth and units of time. The oldest textbook of astronomy "Mul apin". Intercalation systems.

Borrowing of the Babylonian calendar system by the Assyrians, Jews and other peoples. Elements of ideas about time of the ancient Babylonians in Western European culture. Babylonian calendar and modern astrology.

Ancient Hebrew calendar. Seasonality and lunar time counting. The connection of religious ceremonies with the lunar and agricultural cycles. Duration of months and etymology of their names. Evolution of the intercalation system. Features of the beginning of the year in the Jewish calendar. Dependence of the duration of simple and embolismic years on the day of the week at the beginning of the year (short, regular and redundant years). Replacing spring New Year with autumn. Jewish calendar and Christian tradition. The connection between the Christian church calendar and the Jewish one.

Time and calendar of Ancient Greece. "Works and Days" by Hesiod. Philosophy of historical time: ideas about the Golden, Silver, Copper and Iron Ages. Agricultural calendar of Ancient Greece and its connection with astronomy.

The state-political basis of calendars in Greek policies and the absence of a permanent calendar. Variation of time counting systems in Greek city policies. The problem of studying the sequence of the calendar in different ancient Greek cities.

The relationship between the names of months and the names of festivals. Dividing the month into decades. The relationship between the civil beginning of the month and the astronomical new moon. The beginning of the year and its relationship with astronomical and political cycles.

Methods of intercalation in ancient Greek calendars. The astronomer Meton's discovery of the 19-year intercalation cycle.

Athenian calendar. Civil lunar-solar and political (according to the Prytanes) calendars as the basis for counting time in Athens. Peculiarities of coordinating lunar and solar time calculations. The combination of two calendar cycles and the dating of documents in Athens.

Macedonian calendar. Duration of the month and features of counting the days of the month. Intercalation system. Application of the Macedonian calendar in Egypt.

Calendar of Ancient Rome. Ancient agricultural calendar and its features. Duration of the 10 month "year of Romulus". Beginning and end of the year.

The connection between the Roman calendar and the Capitoline cult of Juno and Jupiter. Astronomical and political basis of the calendar. Synchronization of civil and solar calendar cycles. Names of the months, their etymology. Number of days in months. Intercalation system. Divergence of the calendar from the solar year. Kalends, Nones and Ides. Features of the “reverse” perception of time and dating of documents.

Calendar reforms. Political regulation of the calendar and its consequences. The calendar lags behind the solar cycle.

Chinese calendar and philosophy of time. Astronomical observations as the basis of Chinese calendars. Studying time in Ancient China. Technical advances in time recording and measurement.

A combination of cyclic and linear time models. The linear nature of Chinese bureaucratic timekeeping. Worldview and philosophy of China and its connection with the perception of time. "The Book of Changes" and the perception of time. Features of the perception of history and the structure of time: a sequence of closed cycles.

Transition from the lunar calendar to the solar one. Discovery of the 19-year intercalation cycle of coordination of lunar and solar timekeeping. Stellar timekeeping. The meaning of Jupiter in the Chinese model of counting and time perception. Beginning of the year in the Chinese calendar.

Cycles of the Chinese calendar, their relationship and philosophy. The main cycles of the 60-year calendar cycle: “heavenly” and “earthly” branches, their male and female states. Time units, their division and philosophy. Peculiarities of dating documents. Long-term cycles and the perception of history. Reforms of the calendar and chronology systems in China. Introduction of the Gregorian calendar in China. Popularization of elements of the Chinese calendar in the Western European world.

Muslim calendar. Peculiarities of lunar and lunisolar time counting among the ancient Arabs. Intercalation system. Etymology of the names of the months. Cult of the Moon in the culture of nomadic peoples.

Introduction of the religious lunar calendar with the spread of Islam. The era of the Hijra. The connection between the number of months in a year and religious cosmological ideas. Philosophical and religious justification for the length of the year. Etymology of the names of the months of the Muslim calendar: connection with natural, social and religious cycles. The beginning of the year and months in the Muslim calendar, the start time of the day. Leap year system in the Muslim calendar: Turkish and Arabic cycles. Peculiarities of dating documents according to the Muslim calendar.

Egyptian calendar. Seasonal basis of the calendar and features of month counting. Counting time by agricultural periods. Connection of the names of the months with festivals. Cyclicity as the basis for the perception of time in Ancient Egypt.

Solar calendar of Ancient Egypt. Length of the year in the Egyptian calendar. Astronomical basis of the calendar. The connection between ideas about the length of the year and religious ideas. The length of the year as a symbol of the cyclical perception of time and the completeness of the picture of the world. Epagomen. The error of the Egyptian calendar and the movement of months through all periods of the solar year. "Wandering Year" "Great Year" ("Sothic Period"). Kanopsky reform and its fate. Introduction to Egypt of the Julian calendar.

Lunar calendar of Ancient Egypt. Parallel existence of the folk lunar calendar. Using the lunar calendar in everyday and religious life.

The beginning of the year is connected with the appearance of the star Sirius and the beginning of the Nile flood season. Features of the perception of the year as a cyclical period of revival. Using the agricultural, financial and solar cycles in everyday practice.

Ideas about happy and unlucky days. Features of counting the time of day. Origin of the hexadecimal system for counting units of time. Instruments for measuring daily time.

Calendars of pre-Columbian civilizations. Sources for studying the history of calendar systems of pre-Columbian civilizations. Book of calendar forecasts "Chilam-Balam". History of the creation of the Popol Vuh. Written sources of pre-Columbian civilizations and their fate in world culture. Notes of Catholic missionaries on pre-Columbian civilizations: Diego de Landa (about the Mayans), Bernardino de Sahagún (about the Aztecs), Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (about the Incas).

Mayan calendar. Anthropocentricity of 20-digit time counting. connection of the basic units of time recording with the Sun. Day as a manifestation of the solar cycle.

A combination of anthropological, economic and astronomical periods in the Mayan calendar. The ratio of cycles of different durations (20, 260, 365 days and 52 years) in the Mayan calendar system and their use as a date. Solar and sidereal timekeeping. The meaning of Venus in the system of recording and perception of time.

Perception of cardinal directions (space) through time. Peculiarities of Mayan perception of time as a socio-historical category. Model of circular motion of time. "Distance numbers" and recording of historical events. Features of the cyclical perception of time and the concept of social and natural rebirth.

Aztec calendar. Calendar and philosophy of time perception among the Aztecs. Connection of time and space. The 52-year calendar circle, its astronomical, anthropocentricity and philosophy. The idea of ​​a rotating cycle of celebrations. Spatial-cyclic calendar of the Aztecs.

Julian calendar. Reform of the ancient Roman calendar by Julius Caesar. foundations of the calendar system developed by Sosigenes. Length of months and their names. Establishment of a leap system. The beginning of the year and its political significance.

The fate of the calendar after the death of Caesar. Reform of Emperor Augustus. Introduction of the Julian calendar in the Roman Empire and features of the New Year.

The establishment of the Julian calendar is mandatory for all Christians. Inaccuracy of the Julian calendar and the reasons for the reform.

Gregorian calendar. Projects for calendar reform in the 16th century. The essence of calendar reform. Carrying out the reform by Pope Gregory XIII. The transition to the Gregorian calendar in Western Europe and the religious issue in the 16th – 18th centuries. Approval of the Gregorian calendar as a world civil calendar in the 19th – 20th centuries.

Attempts at calendar reforms in Europe. Calendar of the Great French Revolution. New Julian calendar. UN World Calendar Project.

Russian chronology

History of Russian chronology as a scientific discipline

Practical chronology in Ancient Rus' and Russian principalities and lands of the 12th – 15th centuries. Its connection with the level of mathematical and astronomical knowledge. Mathematical and astronomical knowledge in Ancient Rus'. Kirik Novgorod and his work on chronology (XII century). Work on compiling Easter tables at the end of the 15th century. and the beginning of the 16th century. "The circle is peaceful." "Sighted Easter eggs". "Sevenths". Anthropocentric methods of calendar-chronological calculations and time measurement (“Hand of Damascus” or “Hand of the Theologian”). "The Cell Chronicler" by D. Rostovsky as the first scientific and chronological work.

The emergence of scientific chronological research (first half of the 19th century). V. Steingel. Works on Russian chronology P.V. Khavsky. The first generalizing works on the history of calendars (second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries). M. Lalosh, N.V. Stepanov, D.O. Svyatsky. Questions of chronology in paleography courses.

The development of chronology as an auxiliary historical discipline in the 20s - 80s. XX century The appearance of the first reviews of chronology systems. Creation of the first courses on Russian chronology at the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute. Chronology tutorials. Works by A.M. Bolshakova, I.P. Ermolaeva, E.I. Kamentseva, I.A. Orbeli, A.P. Pronshtein and V.Ya. Kiyashko, M.Ya. Syuzyumova, V.V. Tsybulsky, L.V. Cherepnina. Studying the chronicle chronology of N.G. Berezhkov. Popular scientific works on the history of calendars and chronology. Reference literature on chronology.

History of the Russian time counting system

Counting time among the ancient Slavs. Lunar-solar calculation of time. The role of agriculture among the Eastern Slavs. Geographical and climatic features. Seasons. Sun worship. Pagan year. Change of seasons. Perception of space by time cycles.

Spring beginning of the year. Names of the months in the Ostromir Gospel. Ancient Slavic names of the months in modern Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish and other Slavic languages. Linguistic data on the history of time calculation among the ancient Slavs. Archaeological finds containing calendar information and their interpretation. Lack of information about the system of time calculation among the ancient Slavs.

Old Russian account of time. Acceptance of Christianity. Borrowing the Byzantine time system. Era. Adoption of the Byzantine era from the Creation of the world. Julian calendar. The concept of the church and civil year and the use of "Byzantine" names of months and Slavic ones. Preservation of the ancient Slavic beginning of the year. The concept of style. March year. September year. Ultra March year. Hypothesis about the lunar-solar calculation of time. Counting time in weeks. Etymology of days of the week. The beginning of the week in the church calendar. Beginning of the day. Daily time counting.

Various time systems in Russian principalities and lands. Book and folk tradition of counting time. The disappearance of the March year.

Muslim and Turko-Mongolian account of time.

Counting time in the 16th – 18th centuries. Eschatological ideas of Christians on the eve of 7000. Compilation of new Paschals “for the eighth thousand” years by Moscow Metropolitan Zosima, Perm Bishop Philotheus, Novgorod Archbishop Gennady. Church Council of 1492. Approval of Easter eggs for the new millennium and the beginning of the year in September. Days and their division. Civil and ecclesiastical days. Features of measuring daily time in the 16th – 17th centuries. The first hours in the Moscow state.

Timekeeping reforms. The problem of the calendar and methods of measuring time in Russia in connection with the expansion of international relations. Calendar reform of Peter I. Introduction of the era from the Nativity of Christ and the January New Year. Preservation of the September New Year in church timekeeping.

The calendar issue in Russia in the 19th – early 20th centuries. Calendar reform projects. Project I.G. Medler. Time calculation after the February Revolution. Preservation of the Julian calendar as the state calendar. Celebration of May 1, 1917 according to the Gregorian calendar. Transition to the Gregorian calendar of the Bolshevik press.

Timekeeping in Soviet Russia and the USSR. Projects for calendar reform and discussion of the issue of the calendar in the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. Decree of January 24, 1918 on calendar reform. The procedure for carrying out the reform. The transition to a new style (Gregorian calendar) in the context of the Civil War. Time calculation in the USSR. Calendar reform projects. "Maternity time". Five-day, six-day and ten-day counting. Summer and winter time.

Converting dates to a modern time system and checking dates

Checking, determining and converting dates of historical events and historical sources to a modern time system. The need to know reference literature, formulas, tabular material to clarify and determine the dates of historical events. Reference guides for checking chronological dates.

Determining the date style of historical sources and converting them to the modern chronology system. Calendar cyclic units: indict, circle of the Moon, circle of the Sun, vruceleto. Determination of style by indices, days of the week, solar and lunar eclipses, etc. Formula N.G. Berezhkova. Converting dates from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. The question is about the time that has passed since a historical event. Anniversary dates.

Checking and clarifying event dates. Dating of historical sources based on names, events, etc. Form of the title of holders of supreme secular and ecclesiastical authority. Erroneous dates in historical sources. Checking so-called full dates. The meaning of indications of indices, days of the week, circles of the Sun and Moon, astronomical phenomena.

Checking and clarifying dates according to instructions for church holidays. Moving and non-moving church holidays. "Easter". The main elements of Easter. Features of Easter tables in medieval sources. Ways to define Easter as the main Christian moving holiday. The concept of the Easter year and religious perception of time. Formula G.F. Gauss. Features of calculating Easter according to the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The calendar issue in the modern Orthodox Church.

Translation of dates from the ancient Georgian, ancient Armenian, Muslim and Turkic-Mongolian calendars to the modern generally accepted time system. Techniques for dating translated historical sources based on Eastern chronology. Khan's labels.

Rules for recording dates when transmitting text and publishing historical sources.

LITERATURE

To section I "Chronology as a historical discipline"

Mandatory:

Aveni E. Empires of time: Calendars, clocks, cultures. Per. from English Kyiv: "Sofia", 1998. 382 p.

Kamentseva E.I. History of auxiliary historical disciplines: Textbook. M., 1979. 42 p.

Klimishin I.A. Calendar and chronology. 2nd ed. M.: Nauka, 1985. 320 pp.; 3rd ed. M.: Nauka, 1990. 487 p.

Additional:

Agapkina T.A. Mythopoetic foundations of the Slavic folk calendar. Spring-summer cycle. M., 2002.

Andreev I. Natural calendar. M., 1900.

Arago F. Conventional astronomy. St. Petersburg, 1861.

Arrhenius Svante. The idea of ​​the universe over the centuries. St. Petersburg, 1911.

Bakulin P.I., Blinov N.S. Accurate time service. M.: Nauka, 1968. 320 p.

Barinov V.A. Time and its measurement. M., 1949.

Belyaev N.A., Churimov K.I. Halley's comet and its observations. M., 1985.

Berry A. A Brief History of Astronomy. M., 1946.

Bibikov M.V. Medieval chronos as the time of being: emanations of time // Auxiliary historical disciplines: classical heritage and new directions. Materials of the XVIII scientific conference. Moscow, January 26-28, 2006. M., 2006. P.67-80.

Bickerman E. Chronology of the ancient world. M.: Nauka, 1975. 336 p.

Biruni A. Monuments of past generations // Biruni. Favorite works. Tashkent, 1957. T. 1.

Blazhko S.N. General astronomy course. M.; L., 1947.

Blinov N.S. Atomic time // Earth and the Universe. No. 5, 1966. pp. 43–47.

Bolshakov A.M. Auxiliary historical disciplines. Ed. 4th. L., 1924. pp. 205–215. (Section “Chronology”).

Borisov N.S. Everyday life of medieval Rus' on the eve of the end of the world: Russia in 1492 from the Nativity of Christ or in 7000 from the Creation of the world. M., 2004.

Borodin O.R. Man and time. M., 1991.

Braginskaya N.V. Calendar // Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 1991. pp. 612–615.

Braudel F. Time of Peace. Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV–XVIII centuries. M., 1992. T.3. 679 pp.

Bourgoin J. de. Calendar: History and modernity / Translated from French. V. Shabaeva. M., 2006. 144 p.

Butkevich A.V. Ganshin V.N. Khrenov L.S. Time and calendar. M., 1961.

Butkevich A.V., Zelikson M.S. Perpetual calendars. 2nd ed. M.: Nauka, 1984. 206 p.

Buturlin P.P. About the Julian and Gregorian calendars. St. Petersburg, 1866.

Van der Waden B.L. Awakening Science. Part II: The Birth of Astronomy. M., 1991.

Veselovsky N.I. Stellar astronomy of the Ancient East. M., 1960.

Voitkevich G. Age of the Earth and geological chronology. M.: Rostov, 1965.

Volodomonov N.V. Calendar: past, present, future. M., 1987.

Voronitsyn I.P. Secular calendar and civil religion of the Great French Revolution. B.g.

Wood J. The Sun, the Moon and Ancient Stones. M., 1981.

Golovatsky Ya.F. A book about the new calendar, printed in Rome in 1596. St. Petersburg, 1877.

Golygina K.I. Starry sky and “Book of Changes”. M.: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 2003. 208 p.

Gordlevsky V.A. Materials for the Ottoman folk calendar. St. Petersburg, 1911.

Gokhman H.I. Complete perpetual calendar of old and new styles. Odessa, 1880.

Grigoriev G., Popovsky G. History of watches. M., 1937.

Griffiths J. Tick-tock: A look at time from the outside. St. Petersburg, 2006.

Dagaev M.M. Solar and lunar eclipses. M., 1978.

Demidov V. Time, stored like a jewel. M., 1977.

Divaev A.A. Months in the Kyrgyz style with the designation of folk signs // News of the Society of Archeology, History and Ethnography at Kazan University. Kazan, 1896. T. XIII. Vol. 4.

Dneprovsky N.I. Time, its measurement and transmission. L., 1924.

Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya O.A. How people learned to count time. Pb., M. 1922.

Ancient astronomy: Heaven and man. M., 1998.

Dulzan A.P. The time counting system of the Chulym Tatars // Brief communications of the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Vol. X. M.; L., 1950.

Jewish calendar month by month. Jerusalem, 1995.

Emelyanov V.V. The Nippur calendar and the early history of the zodiac. St. Petersburg, 1999. 272 ​​p.

Ermolaev I.P. Historical chronology. Kazan, 1980.

Ermolaev I.P., Ermolaev A.I. Historical chronology. 2nd ed. Kazan, 2004.

Zhekulin V.A. Where did the seven-day week come from? M., 1939.

Zhekulin V.A. Old and new calendar. M., 1941.

Zavelsky F.S. Time and its measurement. M., 1976; 5th ed., rev. M.: Nauka, 1987.

Zamaletdinov I.L. Connection of times in different calendars: A guide to converting Hijri dates to European chronology. M., 1999.

Zakharova I.V. Twelve-year animal cycle among the peoples of Central Asia // Proceedings of the Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR. T. 8. Alma-Ata, 1960.

Zek Yu.Ya., Semenov Yu.N., Guryev M.P. Masterpieces of the Hermitage: Peacock Clock. St. Petersburg: State Publishing House. Hermitage, 2006.

Simmel G. The problem of historical time // Simmel G. Favorites. In 2 volumes. Trans. with him. M., 1996. T.1. P.517-529.

Ivanovsky M. Yesterday, today, tomorrow. L., 1958.

Idelson N. History of the calendar. M., 1925. 176 p.

Indian holidays: general and local in calendar rituals. St. Petersburg, 2005. 296 p.

Calendar and holiday culture of the peoples of foreign Asia: traditions and innovations. M., 1997.

Calendar-chronological culture and problems of its study: To the 870th anniversary of the “Teaching” of Kirik Novgorod: scientific materials. conf. Moscow, December 11-12. 2006 / comp. Yu.E. Shustova; redol. : R.A. Simonov (ed.) et al. M.: Russian State University for the Humanities, 2006.

Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. XIX – early XX centuries: Winter holidays. M., 1973.

Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. XIX – early XX centuries: Spring holidays. M., 1977.

Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. XIX – early XX centuries: Summer-autumn holidays. M., 1978.

Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries: Historical roots and development of customs. M., 1983.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of East Asia: Annual cycle. M., 1989.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of East Asia: New Year. M.. 1985.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Western Asia: Annual cycle. M., 1998.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Southeast Asia. M., 1993.

Calendar – keeper of time: Exhibition catalogue. State Hermitage Museum. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Calendar in the culture of the peoples of the world. M., 1993.

Katanov N.F. Eastern chronology (from a course of lectures given at the North-Eastern Archaeological and Ethnographic Institute in the 1918/19 academic year) // News of the North-Eastern Archaeological and Ethnographic Institute in Kazan. Kazan, 1920. T. 1.

Katanov N.F. Sagai names of the 13 months of the year // News of the Society of Archeology, History and Ethnography at Kazan University. T. XIV. Vol. 2. Kazan, 1897.

Kinkelin G. Calculation of Christian Easter // Mathematical collection of the Moscow Mathematical Society. M., 1870. T. 5. pp. 73–92.

Klimovich L.I. Holidays and fasts of Islam. M., 1941.

Klochkov I.S. Spiritual culture of Babylonia: man, fate, time. M., 1983.

Knorozov Yu.V. Writing of the Mayan Indians. L., 1963.

Kovalsky O. About the Chinese calendar. Kazan, 1835.

Korinfsky A.A. People's Rus': all year round legends, beliefs, customs and proverbs of the Russian people. M., 1995.

Korchmar Ya.I. Historical chronology. Voroshilovgrad, 1955.

Kotlyarchuk A.S. Festive culture in the cities of Russia and Belarus in the 17th century: official ceremonies and peasant rituals. St. Petersburg, 2001.

Krasnodembskaya N.G. The annual cycle of religious holidays among the Marathas // Mythology and beliefs of the peoples of East and South Asia. M., 1973. P.16-26.

Kuder P. Calendar. M., 2004.

Kudryavtsev O.V. On the incorrect calculation of anniversary dates of events that took place before our era // Bulletin of ancient history. No. 12, 1956.

Kuzmin B.S. Basics of the astronomical method of measuring time. M., 1954.

Kulakovsky Yu.A. Roman calendar // Kyiv University News. No. 2, 1883.

Kunik A.A. Proof that the current XIV Great Indiction begins on March 1, 6917 March and September years from m.s. on Friday // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1857. Book. 12.

Kunik A.A. Do we know the year and day of death of Grand Duke Yaroslav Vladimirovich? // Chronicle of the activities of the Archaeographic Commission. T. XI. St. Petersburg, 1903.

Kunik A.A. About the years of death of Grand Duke Svyatoslav Igorevich and Yaroslav Vladimirovich // Notes of the Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1876. T. 28.

Kunik A.A. On the recognition of 1223 as the time of the Battle of Kalka // Scientific notes of the Academy of Sciences for the first and third departments. St. Petersburg, 1854. T. II. Vol. 5.

Kurtik G.E. History of the zodiac according to cuneiform sources // Bulletin of ancient history. 1995. No. 1. P.175–188.

Lalosh M N. Comparative calendar of ancient and new peoples. St. Petersburg. 1869.

Lalosh M.N. Time calculation of the Christian and pagan world. St. Petersburg, 1867.

Lapshin V.I. About old and new style. St. Petersburg, 1897.

Larichev V.E. Wheel of Time. (Sun, Moon and ancient people). Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1986. 176 p.

Lebedev D.A. On the history of time calculation among the Jews, Greeks and Romans. Pg., 1914.

Levi-Strauss K. Primitive thinking. M., 1994.

Levi-Strauss K. Structural anthropology. M., 1983.

Leontyeva G.A. Paleography, chronology, archaeography, heraldry. M., 2000. 200 p.

Leontyeva G.A., Shorin P.A., Kobrin V.B. Auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 2000. 368 p.

Leontyeva G.A., Shorin P.A., Kobrin V.B. Keys to the secret Clio. Paleography, metrology, chronology, heraldry, numismatics, onomastics, genealogy. M., 1994.

Loisha V.A., Krakovetsky Yu.K., Popov L.N. Polar lights. Catalog IV – XVIII centuries. M., 1989.

Losev A.F. Hesiod and mythology // Uch. zap. MGPI. 1954. T.83. Issue 4.

Losev A.F. Historical time in the culture of classical Greece (Plato and Aristotle) ​​// History of philosophy and cultural issues. M., 1975. P.7-61.

Lushnikova A.V. Model of the universe of ancient calendars (linguistic reconstruction). M., 2004. 258 p.

Maystrov L.E. Runic calendars // Historical and astronomical studies. 1962. Issue. VII. P.269-283.

Maistrov L.E., Prosvirkina S.K. Folk wooden calendars // Historical and astronomical studies. M., 1960. Issue 6. P.279-298.

Makarenko A.A. Siberian folk calendar in ethnographic terms. Eastern Siberia. Yenisei province // Notes of the Russian Geographical Society on the Department of Ethnography. St. Petersburg, 1913. T. 36.

Matveev V.Yu. Solar, lunar and sidereal hours. Methodological recommendations for identifying, selecting and scientifically describing monuments of science and technology in museum collections. M., 1988.

Mathieu M., Scelpo N. Present, past and future of the calendar. L., 1931.

Mödler I.G. More about the calendar reform // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1864. Book. 3.

Meletinsky E.M. Mythical time // Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 1991. pp. 252–253.

Meletinsky E.M. Poetics of myth. M., 1976.

Meshchersky N.A. On the dating of Novgorod birch bark documents // Soviet Archeology. No. 4, 1963.

Mikhailov A.A. The Earth and its rotation. M.: Nauka, 1984. 80 p.

Molchanov Yu.B. The problem of time in modern science. M., 1990.

Molchanov Yu.B. Four concepts of time in philosophy and physics. M., 1977.

Mchedlidze G.L. Chronology in ancient Georgian historical literature (V–XIV centuries). Tbilisi, 1963.

Myasnikov L.L. Atomic clock. L., 1962. 56 p.

Neugebauer O. Exact sciences in ancient times. M., 1968.

Nekrylova A.F. All year round. M., 1991.

Nikolsky V.K. The origin of our chronology. M., 1938.

Okladnikova E.A. Model of the universe in the system of images of rock art of the Pacific coast of North America. M., 1995.

Ofuz M. Revolutionary holiday: 1789-1799. M., 2003.

Pavlov A.P. The idea of ​​time in history, archeology and geology. M., 1920.

Pannekoek A. History of astronomy. M.: Nauka, 1966.

Pipunyrov V.N. The history of watches from ancient times to the present day. M., 1982.

Pipunyrov V.N., Chernyagin B.M. Development of chronometry in Russia. M. 1977.

Pisarchik A.K. Tables of the twelve-year animal cycle // Materials of the South Turkmenistan Archaeological Complex Expedition. Ashgabat, 1949. Vol. 1.

Pogodin M.P. On chronology in Russian chronicles // Research. 1850. T. 4.

Pozdneev A.M. Mongolian chronicle “Erdeniin Erahe” // Materials for the history of Khalkha from 1636 to 1736. St. Petersburg, 1883.

Polak I.F. Time and calendar. M., 1959.

Ponyon E. Everyday life in Europe in the year one thousand. M., 1999.

Priselkov M.D. Khan's labels to Russian metropolitans. Pg., 1916.

Pronshtein A.P. Danilevsky I.N. Questions of theory and methodology of historical research. M., 1986.

Pronshtein A.P., Kiyashko V.Ya. Chronology. M.: Higher. school, 1981. 191 p.

Propp V.Ya. Morphology of a (magical) fairy tale. Historical roots of fairy tales. M., 1998. 512 p.

Propp V.Ya. Russian agrarian holidays (Experience of historical and ethnographic research). 3rd ed. M., 2000. 192 p.

Propp V.Ya. Folklore and reality. M., 1976.

Pchelov E.V. Modern calendar and church history // Herboved. 2000. No. 1 (39). P.4-17.

Rabinovich E.G. Type of calendar and typology of culture // Historical and astronomical studies. T. 14. M., 1978.

Rakhimov M.R. Calculation of time among the Tajiks of the Hingou River basin in the 19th – early 20th centuries. // Soviet ethnography. No. 7, 1957.

Rossovskaya V.A. Calendar tribute of centuries. L.; M., 1936.

Savelyeva I.M., Poletaev A.V. Knowledge of the past: theory and history. T.1: Construction of the past. St. Petersburg, 2003.

Savelyeva I.M., Poletaev A.V. History and time in search of the lost. M., 1997.

Saltykov A.B. Chronology of the Battle of the River. Kalke // Scientific notes of the Institute of History RANION. 1929. T. 4.

Samgin N.A. Calendar, its meaning and reforms. M.; Pg., 1923.

Svyatsky D.O. Calendar of our limits // News of the Russian Society of Lovers of World Studies. 1917. T. VI. No. 6 (30).

“This watchmaker will be called the watchmaker...”: Exhibition catalog / Polytechnic Museum; Comp. Chechel N.V. M.: Polytechnic Museum, 2005.

Seleshnikov S.I. The history of the calendar and its upcoming reform. L., 1962.

Seleshnikov S.I. Calendar history and chronology. M.: Nauka, 1977. 224 p.

Selivanov V.V. Year of the Russian farmer // Works. T. II. Vladimir, 1902.

Synchronic tables and explanations. M., 1964.

Sokolova V.K. Spring-summer calendar rituals of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. M., 1979.

Spassky I. Research on biblical chronology. Kyiv, 1857.

Startsev P.A. About the Chinese calendar // Historical and astronomical studies. 1975. Issue 12.

Struve V.V. Chronology of Manetho and the periods of Sothis // Auxiliary historical disciplines. M.; L., 1937. P.19–64.

Sumtsev N.F. A historical sketch of the attempts of Catholics to introduce the Gregorian calendar into southern and western Russia. Kyiv, 1888.

Syuzyumov M.Ya. The chronology is universal. Sverdlovsk, 1971.

Turner V. Symbol and ritual. M., 1983.

Uspensky B.A. Semiotics of history, semiotics of culture. M., 1996. T.1–2.

Heidegger M. Time and Being. M., 1993.

Hawking S. A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes / Transl. from English N. Smorodinskaya. St. Petersburg, 2005.

Hawking S., Ellis J. Large-scale structure of space-time. M., 1976.

Hawkins J. Except Stonehenge. M., 1977.

Hawkins J., White J. Solving the mystery of Stonehenge. M., 1984.

Khrenov L.S., Golub I.Ya. Time and calendar. M.: Nauka, 1989.

Tsybulsky V.V. Calendar and chronology of countries of the world. M., 1982.

Tsybulsky V.V. Lunar-solar calendar of East Asian countries. M., 1987.

Tsybulsky V.V. Modern calendars of the countries of the Near and Middle East: Synchronic tables and explanations. M., 1964.

Chicherov V.I. Winter period of the Russian agricultural calendar of the 16th–19th centuries. (Essays on the history of folk beliefs) // Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography named after. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay of the USSR Academy of Sciences. T. XL. M., 1957.

Shangina I.I. Russian holidays: From Christmastide to Christmastide. St. Petersburg: Azbuka-Classika, 2004. 272 ​​p.

Shapovalova G.G. Yegoryevsky cycle of spring calendar rituals among the Slavic peoples and the folklore associated with them // Folklore and ethnography: Rituals and ritual folklore. L., 1974.

Shorin P.A. Chapter 6. Chronology // Leontyeva G.A., Shorin P.A., Kobrin V.B. Auxiliary historical disciplines. M.: Vlados, 2000. pp. 279–302.

Shur Ya.I. When? Stories about the calendar. M., 1968.

Eliade M. The Myth of Eternal Return; Images and symbols; Sacred and profane. / Per. from fr. M., 2000. 414 p.

Elkin D.G. Perception of time. M., 1962.

Encyclopedia of winter holidays. St. Petersburg, 1995.

Efrosman A.M. History of the calendar and chronology: On the question of the origin of our chronology // Historical and astronomical studies. Vol. XVII. M., 1984.

Yanin V.L. Essays on comprehensive source studies. M., 1977.

Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology from antiquity to the mid-twentieth century. M., 1997.

Cavaignac E. Chronologie de le histoire mondiale. Paris, 1925.

Ekrutt J.W. Der Kalender im Wandel der Zeiten. Stuttgart, 1972.

Ginzel F.K. Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie. Leipzig, 1914.

Grumel V. La Chronologie. Paris, 1958.

Watkins H. Time counts. The story of the calendar. L., 1954.

To section II "Russian chronology"

Mandatory:

Kamentseva E.I. Chronology. M., 1967. 187 pp.; 2nd ed. M., 2003.

Kamentseva E.I. Collection of tasks and exercises on metrology and chronology. M., 1991. 71 p.

Additional:

Alekseev V.V. The world of Russian calendars. M., 2002.

Alekseev I. A brief guide to a convenient knowledge of the signs, according to the Greek-Russian church calculus, showing the seasons and how the Christian Easter... and other holidays change or pass. M., 1787.

Alekseeva L.M. Polar lights in Slavic mythology: The theme of the serpent and the serpent fighter. M., 2001. 454 p.

Archim. Seraphim (Sobolev). Orthodox view of the old and new calendar style. Sofia, 1972.

Belyaev I.D. Chronology of Nestor and his successors // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. M., 1846. No. 2.

Berezhkov N.G. On the chronology of Russian chronicles up to the 14th century inclusive // ​​Historical notes. Book 23. M., 1947.

Berezhkov N.G. The general formula for determining the day of the week by the day of the month in January AD. and in the September, March and ultra-March years “from the creation of the world” // Problems of source study. Vol. 6. 1958.

Berezhkov N.G. Chronology of Russian chronicles. M.: USSR Academy of Sciences. 1963. 375 p.

Bondarenko E.O. Holidays of Christian Rus': Russian folk Orthodox calendar. Kali-ningrad, 2004.

Byalokoz E.L. International time counting during the day, introduced by decree of the Council of People's Commissars for all of Russia from April 1, 1919. Pg., 1919.

Gavryushin N.K. “Renewals of the Elements” in Old Russian Books // Domestic Social Thought of the Middle Ages. Kyiv, 1988. P.206–214.

Georgievsky A.I. About the church calendar. M.: Publishing House of the Moscow Patriarchate, 1948.

Gorbachevsky N.I. Archaeographic calendar for two thousand years (325–2324) according to the Julian numeral and for seven hundred and forty-two years (1583–2324) according to the Gregorian numeral. Vilna, 1869.

Gorbachevsky N.I. Brief tables necessary for history, chronology, in general for all kinds of archaeological research and in particular for the analysis of ancient acts and charters of the Western region of Russia and the Kingdom of Poland. Vilna, 1867.

Danilevsky I.N. Lunar-solar calendar of Ancient Rus' // Archive of Russian history. 1992. No. 1. P.122–132.

Danilevsky I.N. Unresolved issues of the chronology of Russian chronicles // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1984. Issue 15.

Danilevsky I.N. On the date of the Ostromir Gospel // Auxiliary historical disciplines: Special functions and humanitarian perspectives: Abstracts of reports and messages of the XIII scientific conference. M., 2001. P.93–94.

Danilevsky I.N. Prospects for studying the chronology systems of ancient Russian chronicles // // Auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 1994.

Danilevsky I.N. In what style is the Ostromir Gospel dated? // Exact humanitarian knowledge: traditions, problems, methods, results: Abstracts of reports and reports of a scientific conference. M., 1999. P.65-66.

Debolsky G.S. Days of worship of the Orthodox Catholic Church. St. Petersburg, 1857. T.1-2.

Dobryansky A.I. The calendar issue in Russia and the West. St. Petersburg, 1894.

Dolgov P.N. Standard time and new boundaries of time zones. M., 1956.

Dushechkina E.V. Russian Christmas tree: history, mythology, culture. St. Petersburg, 2002.

Zaremba S.Z. Before we talk about the theory and methodology of chronological research // Ukrainian Historical Journal. 1974. No. 2.

Zelensky A.N. Constructive principles of the Old Russian calendar // Context. 1978. M.: Nauka, 1978. P. 62 – 135.

Zimin A.A. On the chronology of spiritual and contractual charters of the great and appanage princes of the 14th - 15th centuries. // Problems of source study. Vol. VI. M., 1958.

Zubov V.P. Kirik Novgorodets and ancient Russian divisions of the hour // Historical and mathematical studies. M., 1953. Issue. 6. pp. 196-212.

Zubov V.P. Notes to “Instructions on how a person can know the number of years” by Kirik Novgorod // Historical and mathematical research. M., 1953. Issue. 6. pp. 192-195

Zyrin N. Inexistent indiction or sighted paschal, collected from various authors, and again arranged in mathematical order with the addition. M., 1787.

Hegumen Ilya (Zhukov). Easter and Easter: Time and calendar in the Orthodox consciousness. St. Petersburg, 2000. 142 p.

Calendar issue: Sat. articles. M.: Publishing house. Sretensky Monastery, 2000.

Kamentseva E.I. Decree on the introduction of a new calendar in Soviet Russia // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L.: Nauka, 1969. Vol. 2. pp. 159 – 165.

Kamentseva E.I. Unknown work by A.I. Yushkova on the Gregorian calendar reform // Russia in the 9th – 20th centuries: Problems of history, historiography and source study. M., 1999. P. 167 – 170.

Kapustin P.I. On what day of the week the given date of the given month and year happened or will occur. M., 1877.

Kinkelin G. Calculation of Christian Easter // Mathematical collection of the Moscow Mathematical Society. M., 1870. T.5. pp.73–92.

Kirik Novgorodets. His teaching to tell a person the numbers of all years // Historical and mathematical research. M., 1953. Issue. 6. pp. 174-191.

Kis Ya.P. Chronology of written monuments of Western Ukrainian lands in the XIV–XVIII centuries. // Historical data and their vikoristannya. Kiev, 1964. VIP. 1.

Kostsova A. Handwritten monthly book of the mid-17th century. // Communications of the State Hermitage. 1956. Issue 9.

Krushinsky L. Common People’s Easter // Volyn Provincial Gazette. 1860. No. 18.

Kuzmin A.G. Chronology of the Primary Chronicle // Bulletin of Moscow University. 1968. No. 6.

Loseva O.V. Russian monthly books of the 11th – 14th centuries. M., 2001. 420 p.

Mammadbayli G.D. Synchronous tables for first dates. Baku, 1961.

Mödler I.G. On calendar reform // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1854. Part 121. Jan. Dept. 6.

Mendeleev D.I. Statement on calendar reform // Op. L.; M., 1950. T. 22.

Mendeleev D.I. Calendar unification // Op. L.; M., 1950. T. 22.

Mendeleev D.I. Resolution of the Commission on the issue of calendar reform in Russia // Russian Astronomical Society. Appendix 6. 1899.

Mendeleev D.I. Preface to the letter of Professor Simon Newcombe on the length of the tropical year // Op. L.; M., 1950. T. 22.

Mikhailov V. On the issue of coordinating the proposed correction of our calendar with the canonical decrees of the Orthodox Church. St. Petersburg, 1900.

Muryanov M.F. Chronometry of Kievan Rus // Soviet Slavonic Studies. 1988, no. 5. pp. 57-69.

Nekrylova A.F. Russian folk city holidays, entertainment and shows. The end of the 18th – the beginning of the 20th century. St. Petersburg, 2004.

Neopolitansky A. Church regulations in tables, showing the entire order of church services of the rank and file and all the features of festive services during the seasons. M., 1907.

Orbeli I.A. Synchronic tables for converting historical dates according to the Hijri to the European chronology. M.; L., 1961.

Pasinetskiy S.Z. Ivan Fedorov, director of calendar works // Ukrainian historical magazine. 1974. No. 6. P.112–116.

Pentkovsky A.M. Calendar tables in Russian manuscripts of the 14th – 16th centuries. // Methodological recommendations for the description of Slavic-Russian handwritten books. M., 1990. Issue. 3. Part 1. pp. 136–197.

Perevoshchikov D.M. Rules of time reckoning adopted by the Orthodox Church. M., 1880.

Petrov A. Guide to understanding the signs and Easter. St. Petersburg, 1847.

Petrov V. The hand of theology, or the science of explaining Paschal. M., 1787.

Piotrovskaya E.K. “The Chronicler Soon” by Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople and “The Doctrine of Numbers” by Kirik of Novgorod // Byzantine Essays. M., 1977.

Pipunyrov V.N., Chernyagin B.M. Development of chronometry in Russia / Responsible. ed. R.A.Simonov. M., 1977.

Pokrovsky A. Calendars and calendars. M., 1911.

Predtechensky E. Church timekeeping and a critical review of existing rules for determining Easter. St. Petersburg, 1892.

Notes on Russian chronological calculations of the 12th century // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. 1847. No. 6.

Prozorovsky D.I. On the Slavic-Russian pre-Christian reckoning of time // Proceedings of the Eighth Archaeological Congress. M., 1897. T. 3.

Prozorovsky D.I. On the ancient Russian reckoning of hours // Proceedings of the Second Archaeological Congress. St. Petersburg, 1861. Issue. 2.

Pchelov E.V. September calendar style in Kievan Rus // Natural science bookishness in the culture of Rus' / Responsible. ed. and comp. A.Yu. Samarin. M., 2005. P.16-22.

Romanova A.A. Old Russian calendar-chronological sources of the 15th–17th centuries. St. Petersburg, 2002. 323 p.

Romanova A.A. On the problem of clarifying the dating of manuscripts of the XIV - XVI centuries. according to the tables and texts of Easter // Experiments in source study. Old Russian book literature: Archaeography, paleography, codicology. St. Petersburg, 1999. pp. 186–199.

Romanova A.A. The role of Novgorod in the dissemination of calendar and chronological knowledge in Russia (the activities of Archbishops Gennady and Macarius) // Likhudov Readings: Scientific Materials. conf. "The first Likhudov readings." Veliky Novgorod, May 11-14, 1998 / Rep. ed. V.L. Yanin, B.L. Frnkich. Veliky Novgorod, 2001. pp. 146-154.

Romanova A.A. Composition and editions of the “Preface to the Saints” // Experiments in source study. Old Russian bookishness: Editor and text. St. Petersburg, 2000. Issue. 3. pp. 164-206.

The hand of Damascus has been removed from the darkness of oblivion. Lviv: Type. Stavropegian Institute, 1830. 88 p. 16 tables; 2nd ed. Corrected Lviv: Type. Stavropegian Institute, 1856.

Sverdlov M.B. Study of Old Russian chronology in Russian and Soviet historiography // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L.: Nauka, 1973. Vol. V. P.61–71.

Code of Great Indictions from 325 to 2473 after the Nativity of Christ. [B.m.]. 1847.

Svyatsky D.O. Astronomical phenomena in Russian chronicles from a scientific-critical point of view // News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences. Pg., 1915. T.20. Book 1. pp.87–208; Book 2. pp.197–228.

Svyatsky D.O. Essays on the history of astronomy in Ancient Rus' // Historical and astronomical studies. M., 1961. Issue. 7. P.93–108; M., 1962. Issue. 8; M., 1969. Issue. 9. P.76–124.

Simonov R.A. “Monthly numbers” and the “perpetual calendar” // Hermeneutics of Old Russian literature. M., 1989. Sat. 2. XVI – beginning XVIII centuries pp.77–85.

Simonov R.A. Astrology in Ancient Rus'. M., 1998.

Simonov R.A. Old Russian source on the use of the “oblique” variable hour in Rus' // Theory and methods of source study and auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 1985. S. 41-52; Reprint: Simonov R.A. Natural scientific thought of Ancient Rus': Selected works. M., 2001. pp. 218-228.

Simonov R.A. Calendar time in Old Russian cosmology // Old Russian Cosmology. St. Petersburg, 2004. pp. 243-365.

Simonov R.A. Kirik Novgorodian - scientist of the 12th century. M., 1980.

Simonov R.A. Literature of Ancient Rus' in calendar-mathematical and sacred contexts // Hermeneutics of Old Russian literature. M., 2004. Issue. 11. P.202-267.

Simonov R.A. Mathematical thought of Ancient Rus'. M., 1977.

Simonov R.A. Unknown Russian handwritten text on “folk” astronomy about the duration of day and night // Problems of source study of the history of book publishing. M., 2002. Issue. 14). pp. 85-91.

Simonov R.A. Osmochastnaya book // Herbologist. 2005. No. 7 (85). pp. 40-53.

Simonov R.A. Ideas about time in pre-Petrine Rus' based on new data on Easter calculations // Philosophical and theological ideas in the monuments of ancient Russian thought. M., 2000. pp. 355-365.

Simonov R.A. Russian “benefits” of the 17th century. about the striking of clocks as evidence of observations of sunrises and sunsets // Historical and astronomical studies. M., 1994. Issue. 24. pp. 235-243.

Simonov R.A. Information from the 15th century about the ancient Russian method of measuring hours // Bulletin of the Society of Researchers of Ancient Rus' for 2000, M., 2002. P. 48-50.

Simonov R.A. Symbolism of the liturgical cycle in Rus' (On the meaning of the church “Hours” of the daily cycle) // Herbologist. 2005, no. 2 (80). pp. 12-30.

Simonov R.A. Symbolism and reality of astrological “coloring” of ancient Russian times // Herbologist. 2004, no. 9 (75). pp. 12-37.

Simonov R.A. Text of the 15th century. on the measurement of time by clocks in Rus' // Auxiliary historical disciplines: Special functions and humanitarian perspectives: Abstracts of reports and messages of the XIII scientific conference. M., 2001. P.112–114.

Simonov R.A., Turilov A.A., Chernetsov A.V. Old Russian bookishness: Natural science and secret knowledge in Russia in the 16th century, associated with Ivan Rykov. M., 1994.

Sokolov S. Orthodox Easter. M., 1900.

The old style is better than the new two: What is calendar reform. M., 2004.

Stepanov N.V. Time units (until the 13th century) according to the Laurentian and 1st Novgorod Chronicles. M., 1909.

Stepanov N.V. A note about the chronological article of Kirik (XII century) // News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1910. T.15. Book 3.

Stepanov N.V. On the issue of the Laurentian Chronicle calendar. M., 1910.

Stepanov N.V. On the issue of chronicle reckoning of hours // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1909. Book 6.

Stepanov N.V. Calendar-chronological factors of the Ipatiev Chronicle until the 13th century. // News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences. Pg., 1915. T. 20. Book. 2.

Stepanov N.V. Calendar-chronological reference book // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. M., 1917. Book 1.

Stepanov N.V. New style and Orthodox Easter, M., 1907.

Stepanov N.V. Tables for solving chronicle “time-based problems” // News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1908. T.13. Book 2.

Tikhonyuk I.A. “Exposition of Paschal” by Moscow Metropolitan Zosima // Studies on source studies of the history of the USSR of the 12th–18th centuries. M., 1986. P.45–61.

Tromonin K. The easiest guide for finding out in which of the past and future years, the number of Easter and moving holidays and fasts, small Indicts, the number of weeks, days of the new year and Circles of the Sun and Moon, in numerical order of the years of the universe and the Nativity of Christ, according to system of Easter key letters, in five hundred-thirty-two years or the so-called Great Indictions, clearly stated, with the addition of tables of years counted from March, September and January, and tables of Easter circles, necessary when checking chronicles and other Slavic-Russian monuments of antiquity . M., 1842.

Turilov A.A. On the dating and place of creation of calendar-mathematical texts - “seven-thousanders” // Natural scientific representations of Ancient Rus'. M., 1988.

Filimon A.N. Jacob Bruce. M., 2003.

Khavsky P.V. The true meaning of vrutselet // Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. St. Petersburg, 1850. Part 68. Dept.2. No. 10–12. pp. 123–132.

Khavsky P.V. Monthly words, calendars and Russian calendars: A chronological and historical composition. M., 1856.

Chronological reference book (XIX and XX centuries) / Comp. M.I. Perper. L., 1984. 37 p.

Tsyb S.V. 2000 years from the Nativity of Christ: History of our chronology: Textbook. allowance Barnaul, 1999. 69 p.

Tsyb S.V. Old Russian time calculation in the Tale of Bygone Years. Barnaul, 1995.

Chekunova A.E. Collection of tasks, questions and exercises on chronology. M., 1984.

Chekunova A.E., Komissarenko A.I. Amateurism in historical chronology // Questions of history. 1996. No. 1. P.171–174.

Cherepnin L.V. Russian chronology. M., 1944.

Cherukhin N.I. Calendar for chronological references // Russian antiquity. 1873. No. 7.

Shangina I.I. Russian holidays. From Christmastide to Christmastide. St. Petersburg, 2004

Shteingel V.I. The experience of a complete study of the principles and rules of chronological and monthly notation of the old and new style. St. Petersburg, 1819.

Shustova Yu.E. Problems of dating Venetian Cyrillic printed publications of the 16th century // Natural science bookishness in the culture of Rus' / Responsible. ed. and comp. A.Yu. Samarin. M., 2005. P.51-60.

Shchapov Ya.N. The ancient Roman calendar in Rus': Eastern Europe in ancient times and the Middle Ages. M., 1978.

Shchapov Ya.N. Calendar in Pskov manuscripts of the 15th–16th centuries. // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the Russian Academy of Sciences. L., 1983. T.37. pp. 157–183.

Engelman A. Chronological studies in the field of Russian and Livonian history in the XII–XIV centuries. St. Petersburg, 1858.

Yakovkin I.N. A perpetual calendar or a guide to the most convenient definition of chronological terms for any time. St. Petersburg, 1862.

Yasinsky M.N. Calculation of daily time in Western Russia and Poland in the 16th–17th centuries. Kyiv, 1902.

Yachin V. On the question of the origin of ancient Russian names of months // World Vision, 1928. T.17. No. 3.

Baar A.H. van den. A Russian Church Slavonic Kanonnik (1331 – 1332). The Hague, Paris, 1968.

Grmek M.D. Les sciences dans les manuscripts slaves orientaux du Moyen Age. Paris, 1959.

Ryan W. F. Astronomy in Church Slavonic: Linguistic Aspects of Cultural Transmission // The Formation of the Slavonic Literary Languages. Columbus, Ohio, 1985. P.53-60.

Ryan W. F. The Oriental Duodenary Animal Cycle in Old Russian Manuscripts // Oxford Slavonic Papers. New series. 1971. Vol. 4. P.12-30.

The section is very easy to use. Just enter the desired word in the field provided, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-formation dictionaries. Here you can also see examples of the use of the word you entered.

Find

Meaning of the word chronology

chronology in the crossword dictionary

Economic dictionary of terms

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

chronology

chronology, w. (from the Greek chronos - time and logos - teaching).

List of events in their time sequence. Chronology of Russian history.

the time or sequence in which something appears. in time. Chronology of events.

An auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of events and the time of appearance of documents (special).

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.

chronology

A branch of historical science that studies the history of chronology.

List of events in their time sequence. X. Russian history.

what. The sequence of appearance of something. in time. X. events.

adj. chronological, -aya, -oe.

New explanatory and word-formative dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

chronology

CHRONOLOGY (from chrono... and... logy)

sequence of historical events over time.

The science of measuring time. Astronomical chronology studies the patterns of recurring celestial phenomena and establishes precise astronomical time. Historical chronology is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the chronology systems and calendars of various peoples and states, helps to establish the dates of historical events and the time of creation of historical sources.

Chronology

Historical chronology- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the chronology systems and calendars of different peoples and states and helps to establish the dates of historical events and the time of creation of historical sources.

Examples of the use of the word chronology in literature.

He made a number of discoveries concerning the composition of Indo-European vocalism, the labial series of velars, the weak degree of ablaut, the connection between longitude and the nature of syllabic intonation, relative chronology first and second palatalization in Proto-Slavic.

In the Indian tradition, unlike the Western one, as a rule, no specific chronology and strict dating.

First of all, the high technique of forgery, starting from the legend of its introduction into public circulation and ending with manufacturing techniques: paper, type, corner stamp, stamp of incoming correspondence, knowledge chronology structural and personnel changes in security department institutions.

New experimental and statistical methods for dating ancient events and applications to the global chronology ancient and middle world.

STATISTICAL MODELS To overcome the difficulties of recreating the correct chronology, we must, in our opinion, try to look at the subject from a new angle and create some new, independent method of dating events that is not based on subjective assessments.

The history of the creation of traditional chronology and a new concept of ancient and medieval history is proposed, created on the basis of the use of new empirical and statistical methods.

Hindu chronology approximate, my erudition is even more approximate, Köppen and Hermann Beck should be trusted no more than the one who dared to write these notes.

Questions chronology and contextual terminology of the Koran in Soviet Arabic studies were covered primarily by K.

It was wiser only in that I had in my hands the explanation of grandmother Elovatskaya, who described in detail and competently all chronology fights, Rita Tereshkina’s address and the firm knowledge that today marked Larionov’s second day in prison.

Thus, according to chronology this chronicle, it contains a gap from 1299 to 1415.

Relying even only on the scientific data of high school textbooks, we legitimately obtain the following chronology appearance of species of life on Earth: Microscopic organisms and algae - the first and simplest program.

This is how a suspicious list of Slavic tribes appeared in the chronicle, supposedly conquered by Oleg, a list with a suspicious chronology.

Let us repeat once again - Gauchard and Ross insisted on the theory of Tacitus’s forgery only because they believed Scaliger’s chronology.

List tried to connect the geological periods of the Earth, according to modern paleogeography, with the phases of the last theosophical circle of 4,320,000,000 years or kalpa according to Hindu chronology.

Johnson called for a radical overhaul of the entire chronology Antiquity and the Middle Ages!

CHRONOLOGY, -i, f.

1. A branch of historical science that studies the history of chronology.

2. List of events in their time sequence. X. Russian history.

3. what. The sequence of appearance of something. in time. X. events.

| adj. chronological, oh, oh.

S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language

Interactive list. Start typing the word you are looking for.

CHRONOLOGY What is it CHRONOLOGY, meaning of the word CHRONOLOGY, synonyms for CHRONOLOGY, origin (etymology) CHRONOLOGY, CHRONOLOGY stress, word forms in other dictionaries

+ CHRONOLOGY- T.F. Efremova New dictionary of the Russian language. Explanatory and word-formative

+ CHRONOLOGY- Modern explanatory dictionary ed. "Great Soviet Encyclopedia"

3. The sequence of appearances of something over time. X. events. Chronological - relating to chronology.

+ CHRONOLOGY- Small Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language

CHRONOLOGY is

chronology

AND, and.

The sequence of historical events in time, as well as the list of dates of these events.

He considered drawing maps to be the most necessary and most important in geography, and knowledge of chronology in history. Chekhov, Literature Teacher.

Sequence of smb. phenomena, events in time.

The Gorlitsins have now introduced their own household chronology: this was when Lyuba said “mother” for the first time; this is when she made her first tooth. Mamin-Sibiryak, Lyubov.

But fossils are even more important for establishing geological chronology. Savelyev, Traces on the stone.

An auxiliary historical science that, based on the study and comparison of written or archaeological sources, establishes the exact dates of various historical events.

(From the Greek χρόνος - time and λόγος - teaching)

+ CHRONOLOGY- Compiled dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

CHRONOLOGY is

chronology

CHRONOLOGY

(Greek, from chronos - time, and logos - word). 1) the science of calculating time, as well as the time of various historical events. 2) placement of events by their corresponding years.

from the Greek chronos - time and logos - word, teaching), 1) the sequence of historical events in time. 2) Historical X. - an auxiliary historical discipline, studies the chronology systems and calendar of various peoples, helps establish the dates of historical events and the time of creation of historical sources.

Great definition

Incomplete definition ↓

CHRONOLOGY

from Greek xronos - time and logos - word, doctrine) - the science of measuring time. There are astronomical (or mathematical) X. and technical (or historical) X. Astronomical X. studies various patterns of repeating celestial phenomena and, using calculations, establishes the exact astronomical. time. Historical X. - auxiliary history. a discipline that determines, based on the study and comparison of written or archaeological records. sources exact dates of various sources. events and documents X. is a historically established system of knowledge. Observations of natural phenomena, complex mathematics. calculations in determining time already from ancient times contributed to the formation of X. Having arisen in the ancient East. states of Babylonia and Egypt, X. especially developed in Other. Greece (Eratosthenes, Callippus, etc.) and Rome (Varro, Censorinus, Ptolemy, Macrobius, etc.). It was further developed in the Middle Ages (Beda the Venerable, Biruni, Kirik). Systematization of history X. introduced in the 16th century. the Frenchman J. Scaliger, having developed precise techniques for the editions of various chronologies in the Julian style (see Calendar). Research on the nature of chronology was carried out in the 17th century. French monk D. Petavius. X. gave a general theory and history in the 19th century. German scientist L. Ideler, in the beginning. 20th century developed mute. scientist F. Ginzel. Works on X. in the 20th century. are dedicated to ch. arr. in-depth study of the department. types of chronology and forms of determining time in folklore. calendars (by seasons, by the rising of constellations, etc.), as well as by such phenomena as eclipses, earthquakes, etc. Translated into modern. chronology system of events of ancient history, known from sources under certain years of the reign of pharaohs (in Egypt), archons (in Athens), consuls, emperors (in Rome), popes, patriarchs, etc. For the development of X., the increasing contacts of this science with archeology, natural science, and the use of computing are of great importance. technology. Lit.: Cherepnin L.V., Russian chronology, M., 1944; Kamentseva E.I., Chronology, M., 1967; Seleshnikov S.I., History of the calendar and chronology, M., 1970 (see also detailed bibliography); Syuzyumov M. Ya., General Chronology, Sverdlovsk, 1971; Macdonald J. C, Chronologies and calendars, L., 1897; Ginzel F., Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, (Bd) 1-3, Lpz., 1906-14; Ideler L., Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, Bd 1-2, V., 1825-26; Stamp A. E., Methods of chronology, L., 1933; Poole R. L., Studies in chronology and history, Oxf., 1934. See also lit. at Art. Calendar. M. Ya. Syuzyumov. Sverdlovsk

Chronology, from the Greek “chronos” - time and "logos" - doctrine. Understood in two senses:

1. the science of time and its measurement;
2. scientifically reconstructed sequence of historical events and their temporal extent;

“... those who think that it is possible to understand history without chronology are even more mistaken than those who hope to get out of the labyrinth without a guide...”(J. Bodin, "Method...", ch. VIII)

Chronology-related concepts

Astronomical or mathematical chronology

Astronomical, or mathematical chronology is usually called the science of the patterns of celestial phenomena and their dating, in the case when such dating is unique; otherwise, the entire range of possible meanings is offered for subsequent study and selection. Mathematical chronology studies the movement of celestial bodies and develops systems for calculating astronomical time.

Historical or technical chronology

Historical, or technical chronology - considered auxiliary discipline in historical science. Historical (technical) chronology establishes, based on the study of written or archaeological sources, the time of an event, as well as the time of occurrence of the historical sources themselves. She also studies time systems and calendars of different nations and states.

It is generally accepted that the foundations of historical chronology were laid Eusebius Pamphilus in the 4th century AD in the work “History of Times from the Beginning of the World to the Council of Nicea”, but this work has reached us only in a “restored” Joseph Scaliger form. The dating of ancient events, accepted today, was first most consistently formalized in a series of works Joseph Scaliger ( –) ("Opus novum de emendatione temporum", ; "Thesaurum temporum", ) and Jesuit scientist Dionysius Petavius ( –) ("De doctrina temporum", ). It was finally consolidated in the works of the Irish Archbishop Usseria ( –) ("The Annals of the World", ) and Jesuit scientist Riccioli ( –) ("Chronologia reformata", ). Periodized and chronologized ancient art Winkelmann ( –) ("Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums", ). This version of the chronology is called "Scaligerian chronology" or traditional chronology (TX).

In traditional history chronology counts "auxiliary discipline", since traditional chronology is based on a priori judgments of historians about the time of events that occurred and has no independent meaning for them (none of the other sciences, except history and theology, have “auxiliary” disciplines). Until recently, the framework of TX was "Sacred Chronology"(see below), but in modern times the religious framework was discarded, surviving only in the form of hardwired traditional chronology dates of “sacred” events: Births Christ, Flood, etc.

Sacred chronology

"Sacred Chronology"- chronology of events in the Old and New Testaments. In the year of the Irish Archbishop Ashsher (Usseriy) published his “Annals of the World”, in which he proposed his version of the exact chronologization of all the events described in the Bible. According to Ashshera, supported by astrological arguments, the creation of the world began at the beginning of the night preceding October 23, 4004 BC, that is, at 6.00 pm on October 22. Some chronological dates according to Usseria(hour, day, month omitted, years BC):

• 4004 - Creation of the World, Fall of the Angels
• 2349 - The Flood
• 2290, August 17 - Noah “sent out a raven” from his ark
• 1921 - Conscription Jehovah To Abraham from the burning bush
• 1706 - Arrival of the family in Egypt Jacob
• 1491 - Exodus from Egypt
• 1451 - Conquest of Canaan
• 1405 - First Judge of Israel Othniel
• 1095 - Accession Saula
• 1004 - Construction of the Temple Solomon
• 975 - Separation of Israel and Judah
• 721 - Fall of Israel
• 587 - Fall of Judea
• 536 - Return from Captivity
• 4 - Birth Jesus

According to Byzantine Orthodox tradition, creation Adam occurred on Friday, March 1, 5508 BC.

The era of Sacred History did not end in the 17th century. Historian A.L. Schlözer(-) adhered to this system at the beginning of the 19th century. A modern historian points out:

“... the historian Schlözer lived back in the Middle Ages: he seriously wrote that the world has existed for about 6,000 years. In its chronology there are periods: “from creation to the flood”, “from the flood to Rome”, etc. But, on the other hand, Schlözer is a conductor of new methods in historical research. Schlözer considered his history of mankind as a new kind of history, different from the works created earlier, as he said, by philosophers.” ()

Scientific chronology

Scientific chronology is a modern, actively developing discipline at the intersection of the natural and human sciences, the purpose of which is to restore the true order of historical events and determine their duration. It is based on mathematical and natural scientific dating methods and itself is the foundation for the scientific analysis of historical processes. Fundamentals of modern scientific chronology laid down ON THE. Morozov() And A.T. Fomenko(). As a result of research A.T. Fomenko And G.V. Nosovsky they proposed another version of the chronology of world history, significantly different from TX - the so-called