The main types of pedagogical activities traditionally include educational and teaching, scientific, methodological, cultural, educational and management activities.

Teaching is the management of cognitive activity in the learning process, carried out within the framework of any organizational form, has strict time limits, a strictly defined goal and options for achievement.

The most important criterion for teaching effectiveness is the achievement of learning activities.

Modern Russian pedagogical theory considers teaching and upbringing as a unity. In the didactic aspect, the unity of teaching and upbringing is manifested in the commonality of purpose and personal development, in the real relationship of teaching, development and educational functions.

The teacher combines a scientist and a practitioner: a scientist in the sense that he must be a competent researcher and contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge about the child and the pedagogical process, and a practitioner in the sense that he applies this knowledge. A teacher is often faced with the fact that he does not find in the scientific literature explanations and methods for solving specific cases from his practice, with the need to generalize the results of his work. The scientific approach to work, therefore, is the basis of the teacher’s own methodological activity.

The scientific work of the teacher is expressed in the study of children, the formation of his own “bank” of various methods, generalization of the results of his work, and the methodological work is expressed in the selection and development of a methodological topic.

Cultural and educational is an integral part of the teacher’s activities. It introduces parents to various branches of pedagogy and psychology, students – to the basics of self-education, popularizes and explains the results of the latest psychological and pedagogical research, etc.

When managing a group of children, the teacher performs several functions: planning, organizing, ensuring the implementation of the plan, motivation or stimulation - this is the teacher encouraging himself and others to work to achieve the goal, control.

The professionally determined properties and characteristics of a teacher include the general orientation of his personality (social maturity, civic responsibility, professional ideals, humanism, highly developed, primarily cognitive interests, selfless attitude towards his chosen profession), as well as some specific qualities:

- organizational;

- communicative;

- perceptual-gnostic;

- expressive;

- professional performance;

- physical and mental health.

In the study of the psychology of pedagogical activity, a number of problems can be identified. Among the most important of them are the following:

The problem of creative potential and the possibility of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes.

The problem of teacher professionalism.

The problem of psychological training of teachers.

The problem of preparing teachers for developmental education systems.

The problem of teacher training.

Today there is an extensive list of various educational technologies. They are all interconnected with each other, that is, they borrow technological techniques from each other. For my work, I chose the technology of system-activity learning, because I wanted my students to work independently in class, to be able to control and analyze their work, to “obtain” and comprehend knowledge in feasible independent work.

In the context of the transition of secondary schools to the Federal State Educational Standard, teachers are given the task of developing knowledge in accordance with new standards, universal actions that provide all academic subjects, with competencies that allow students to act in a new environment at a qualitatively high level. The implementation of these tasks is fully facilitated by the system-activity approach to training, which is included in the new standards.

The technology of the activity method means that the formulation of an educational problem and the search for its solution are carried out by students in the course of a dialogue specially built by the teacher. Children, under the guidance of a teacher, but with a high degree of independence, answer questions and discover new knowledge.

Children are given the opportunity to develop the ability to see each phenomenon from different points of view. Possession of such a skill is one of the most important characteristics of a modern person. It is associated with such personality traits as tolerance for other people's opinions and habits, willingness to cooperate, mobility and flexibility of thinking.

Based on the fact that the most important characteristic of the activity method is consistency, the system-activity approach is carried out at various stages of the lesson.

At the stage motivation (self-determination) for educational activities conscious entry of students into the space of learning activities in the classroom is organized.

At this stage, children are prepared for work, with the tasks of the lesson discussed with them (“let’s practice solving examples”, “get acquainted with a new computational technique”, etc.) Good wishes are also expressed to the children, moral support is given, or children are invited to think which will be useful for successful work in the lesson.

At the stage updating knowledge children’s thinking is prepared for learning new material, reproducing educational content that is necessary and sufficient for the perception of new things, indicating situations that demonstrate the insufficiency of existing knowledge. I include a problematic question that motivates the study of a new topic. At the same time, work is being done to develop attention, memory, speech, and mental operations.

At the stage problematic explanation of new material Children’s attention is drawn to the distinctive property of the task that caused the difficulty, then the goal and theme of the lesson is formulated, organizing a leading dialogue aimed at constructing and comprehending new material, which is recorded verbally, with signs and with the help of diagrams.

Students are offered a system of questions and tasks that lead them to independently discover something new. The discussion results in a conclusion.

At the stage primary consolidation Students perform training exercises with mandatory commenting and speaking out loud the learned algorithms of action.

When conducting independent work with self-test an individual form of work is used. Students independently complete tasks to apply the learned properties and rules, test them in class step by step, comparing them with the standard, and correct the mistakes made, determine their causes, establish methods of action that cause them difficulty and they have to refine them. I create a situation of success for each child.

Next stage- inclusion in the knowledge system and repetition. Here, children determine the boundaries of applicability of new knowledge, train the skills of using it in conjunction with previously learned material, and repeat the content that will be required in subsequent lessons.

At summing up lesson we record the new knowledge learned and its significance. Self-assessment of educational activities is organized and homework is agreed upon. Summing up the lesson helps the child understand his own achievements and his problems.

Thus, the use of problem-based learning techniques, project-based methods and group forms of work makes it possible to implement an activity-based approach in teaching schoolchildren.

Learning through the activity method provides for the implementation of the educational process in which, at each stage of education, a number of intellectual qualities of the individual are simultaneously formed and improved.

I believe that the correct use of the activity-based teaching method in the classroom will optimize the educational process, eliminate student overload, prevent school stress, and most importantly, make studying at school a unified educational process.

Today, every teacher can use the activity method in his practical work, since all the components of this method are well known. Therefore, it is enough just to comprehend the significance of each element and use them systematically in your work. The use of activity-based teaching technology creates conditions for the formation of a child’s readiness for self-development, helps to form a stable system of knowledge and a system of values ​​(self-education).

Forms of pedagogical activity

Pedagogical activity is the educational and training influence of a teacher on a student (s), aimed at his personal, intellectual and activity development, at the same time acting as the basis for his self-development and self-improvement.

This activity arose in the history of civilization with the advent of culture, when the task of “creating, storing and transmitting to younger generations samples (standards) of production skills and norms of social behavior” acted as one of the decisive ones for social development, starting with the primitive community, where children studied in communicating with elders, imitating, adopting, following them, which was defined by J. Bruner as

"learning in context". According to J. Bruner, humanity knows “only three main ways of teaching the younger generation: the development of the components of a skill in the process of play among higher primates, learning in context among indigenous peoples, and the abstract school method separated from direct practice.”

Gradually, with the development of society, the first classes, schools, and gymnasiums began to be created. Having undergone significant changes in the content of education and its goals in different countries at different stages, the school nevertheless remained a social institution, the purpose of which is the transfer of sociocultural experience through the pedagogical activities of teachers and educators.

The forms of transmission of sociocultural experience have changed in the history of school development. This was conversation (Socratic conversation) or maieutics; work in workshops (experience in pottery, leather, weaving and other areas of industrial training), where the main thing was the systematic and purposeful participation of the student in the technological process, his consistent mastery of production operations; verbal instruction (the institution of “uncles”, monasteries, tutors, etc.). Since the time of Ya.A. Comenius firmly established classroom teaching, which differentiated its forms such as lesson, lecture, seminar, test, and workshops. In recent decades, training has appeared. Let us note here that for a teacher, one of the most difficult forms of his activity is a lecture, while for a student, an apprentice - seminars and tests.

Characteristics of teaching activity

Pedagogical activity has the same characteristics as any other type of human activity. This is, first of all, goal-orientation, motivation, objectivity. A specific characteristic of pedagogical activity, according to N.V. Kuzmina is her productivity. There are five levels of productivity in teaching activities:

“I - (minimal) reproductive; the teacher knows how to tell others what he knows; unproductive.

II - (low) adaptive; the teacher knows how to adapt his message to the characteristics of the audience; unproductive.

III - (middle) locally modeling; the teacher has strategies for teaching students knowledge, skills, and abilities in individual sections of the course (i.e., formulating a pedagogical goal, being aware of the desired result and selecting a system and sequence for including students in educational and cognitive activities); medium productive.

IV - (high) systematically modeling students' knowledge; the teacher knows strategies for forming the required system of knowledge, skills, and abilities of students in the subject as a whole; productive.

V - (highest) systematically modeling the activities and behavior of students; the teacher has strategies for transforming his subject into a means of shaping the student’s personality, his needs for self-education, self-education, self-development; highly productive” (emphasis added - I.Z.).

When considering pedagogical activity, we mean its highly productive nature.

Subject content of pedagogical activity

Pedagogical activity, like any other type of activity, is determined by psychological (subject) content, which includes motivation, goals, subject, means, methods, product and result. In its structural organization, pedagogical activity is characterized by a set of actions (skills), which will be discussed further.

The subject of pedagogical activity is the organization of educational activities of students aimed at their mastering of subject-specific sociocultural experience as the basis and condition for development. The means of pedagogical activity are scientific (theoretical and empirical) knowledge, with the help and on the basis of which the students’ thesaurus is formed. The “carriers” of knowledge are textbook texts or their representations, recreated by the student during teacher-organized observation (in laboratory, practical classes, field practice) of the facts, patterns, and properties of objective reality being mastered. Auxiliary are technical, computer, graphic, etc. facilities.

Ways of transmitting socio-cultural experience in teaching activities are explanation, demonstration (illustration), joint work with students to solve educational problems, direct practice of the student (laboratory, field), training. The product of pedagogical activity is the formed individual experience of the student in the totality of its axiological, moral-ethical, emotional-semantic, subject-matter, evaluative components. The product of pedagogical activity is assessed in an exam, tests, according to the criteria of solving problems, performing educational and control actions. The result of pedagogical activity as the fulfillment of its main goal is the personal, intellectual development of the student, improvement, and formation of him as an individual, as a subject of educational activity. The result is diagnosed by comparing the student’s qualities at the beginning of training and upon its completion in all plans of human development [see, for example, 189].

More on the topic § 1. Pedagogical activity: forms, characteristics, content:

1. 2.2. PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY: ESSENCE, GOALS, CONTENT 2.2.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONCEPT OF “ACTIVITY”
2. § 2. Style of pedagogical activity General characteristics of the style of pedagogical activity
3. Chapter 1. General characteristics of teaching activities
4. 3. Content and forms of joint activities between school and family
5. § 2. Motivation for teaching activities General characteristics of pedagogical motivation
6. 2.2. Content and organization of practical training aimed at developing the individual style of pedagogical activity of the future teacher

A.M. Novikov

BASICS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

In the previous article of this series (magazine “Specialist” 2010, Nos. 11, 12.) the educational activities of the student were considered. Let us now move on to a consideration of the pedagogical activity of a teacher, bearing in mind, first of all, the activity of a professional educator: teacher, lecturer, educator, etc.

Features of teaching activity

Let us ask ourselves the question: is the activity of a teacher a management activity? Yes, definitely. The teacher guides the student and manages the process of his education. Let's take a brief excursion into the general theory of control.

Fig.1. Components of Control Theory

The concept of the general theory of management of social systems

In social systems (where both the governing body and the managed system are subjects - people or organizations) MANAGEMENT IS THE ACTIVITY (of the governing bodies) TO ORGANIZE THE ACTIVITIES (of the managed subjects). In relation to the pedagogical system “teacher – student (students)” this statement means that The managerial activity of a teacher consists of organizing the educational activities of the student(s).

The main components of the structure of control theory are shown in Fig. 1.

Management Goals are to achieve the required results of the student(s).

Management efficiency criteria. In accordance with the approaches of modern management theory, the effectiveness of control is determined by the effectiveness of the state in which the controlled system finds itself under the influence of this control. In relation to the pedagogical system, the effectiveness of a teacher’s managerial activity is determined by the effectiveness of the results of the student’s activities that he achieved as a result of pedagogical (managerial) influence. And not the quality of filling out plans and reports, not the “beautifulness” of training sessions, etc.

Management methods . For a fixed (with a given composition and structure) social system the following stand out management methods:

– institutional (administrative, command, limiting, coercive) management;

– motivational management (management that encourages managed subjects to perform the required actions);

– information management (based on the communication of information, the formation of beliefs, ideas, etc.).

Types of management. From the point of view of regularity and repeatability of controlled processes, the following types of control can be distinguished:

– project management (management of system development in dynamics – changes in the system, innovation activities, etc.);

– process management (management of the functioning of the system “in static” - regular, repeating activities under constant external conditions).

Since for a student his educational activity is always innovative, then in the pedagogical system “teacher - student (students)” only project management will always take place. We have already talked about pedagogical projects in one of the previous articles (magazine “Specialist” 2010, No. 1).

For dynamic control, in turn, we can distinguish reflexive (situational) control And forward control. Reflexive control is control in which the governing body reacts to changes or external influences as they appear, without trying to predict or influence them. Forward control is based on forecasting the conditions and requirements for the functioning of the system.

For the activities of a teacher, this is an essential classification. A good teacher is distinguished by his ability to stay ahead of events. As they say, “to lead is to foresee.”

Control functions. There are four main functions management: planning, organization, stimulation and control. The continuous sequence of implementation of these functions constitutes a cycle of management activities (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Cycle of management activities

Since these functions fit into the logic of the project organization, including pedagogical project(see the magazine “Specialist” 2010, No. 1), we will not consider them in detail here.

Forms of management . By choosing different classification bases, different forms of management are distinguished.

1.Depending on the structure of the control system, the following are distinguished:

– hierarchical management (the management system has a hierarchical structure, with each subordinate having one and only one boss);

– distributed management (one subordinate may have several superiors);

– network management (different management functions at different points in time can be performed by different elements of the system; including, the same employee can be a subordinate for some of his functions, and a manager for other functions).

In fact, in “teacher-student(s)” systems, all three forms of management take place:

For a student, for example, at school, the class teacher is an example of hierarchical management. Or in classes on one specific subject he is subordinate to only one teacher;

For the same student, all the teachers who teach all the subjects that he studies are at the same time “bosses” for him - an example of distributed control;

In student self-government, one and the same student can be a subordinate in some of his functions, and a leader in other functions. In addition, with the brigade organization of the educational process, temporary groups can be created in extracurricular activities, where the same student can also be a subordinate for some of his functions, and a leader for other functions. These are examples of network management.

The relationship between these forms of management is interesting. pedagogical problem.

2. Depending on the number of managed entities, the following forms of management can be distinguished:

– individual management (management of one subject) – in our case, individual education systems;

– collective management (management of a group of subjects) – in our case, group, collective forms of education.

3. Depending on whether the management takes into account the individual characteristics of the managed subjects, the following forms are distinguished:

– unified management (when the same management mechanisms are applied to a group of, in general, different subjects);

– personalized control (when the control action depends on the individual characteristics of the controlled subject).

Again, it is clear that the degree to which a teacher takes individual characteristics into account in his teaching activities can be completely different depending on his desire, experience, abilities, as well as on the size of the class or group. In addition, this will also include such well-known areas of pedagogical research as individualization of learning, student-centered education, etc.

Controls– orders, directives, instructions, plans, norms, standards, regulations, etc. In our case, the teacher, as a rule, does not issue written administrative documents (except for notes to parents with an invitation to come to school), he usually has oral means of control, but the essence of these means of control is the same - administrative, normative.

Management principles:

Principle 1 (hierarchy). It is generally accepted that hierarchy as a division of functions in complex systems is a manifestation of the need for specialization, specifying the functions of each element of this system and allowing the most rational use of its objectively limited capabilities. The governing body can have no more than 7+-2 subordinate entities under its control, i.e. their there should be no more so-called Miller numbers XE "Miller Number"7 ± 2. Otherwise, the division of controlled subjects into several groups and the next, higher level of hierarchy is introduced. The content of this requirement can be explained by the limited capacity of a person’s RAM, his ability to analyze no more than 5–9 components in RAM. In relation to the activities of a teacher, this principle means that when the number of students in a group or class exceeds this number, the teacher inevitably doomed to overload .

Principle 2 (focus) . Any management is carried out for a specific purpose. In particular, the goal of management in the pedagogical system “teacher - student (students)” is the education of the student (students) in accordance with established requirements for volume, quality and on time.

Principle 3 (efficiency). The implemented control must have maximum efficiency under given restrictions. That is, to be optimal. In particular, the achievement of a fixed goal of system activity should be achieved with optimal use of resources. So, in relation to our case, the teacher must achieve the goals of education, training and development of the student (students) with optimal expenditure of time and effort. Moreover, the efforts of both the student(s) and their own.

Principle 4 (responsibility) . The management body is responsible for the effectiveness of the activities of the managed entities and the entire system as a whole (quality, timing, resource consumption). The effectiveness of management is assessed only by the performance of managed entities. That is, in relation to the activities of a teacher, this principle means that the effectiveness of his work is assessed by the results of the educational activities of students - their upbringing, training, development, and not by how “beautifully” he conducts classes, how many classes he taught, how he drew up plans, reports, etc.

Principle 5 (non-interference). The intervention of a governing body in the activities of managed entities occurs if and only if the entities subordinate to it do not ensure the implementation of the entire complex of necessary functions. In relation to the activities of a teacher, this principle means the need to comply with measures in intervention, “regulation” of the student’s activities, and the danger of “overregulation”.

Principle 6 (openness). Management of the system should be aimed at the maximum expedient involvement of all interested parties (society, authorities, individuals and legal entities, social movements, etc.) in the process of system development. In relation to the activities of a teacher, this principle means the openness of the pedagogical system “teacher - student (students)”, the transparency of their joint activities for others.

Principle 7 (regulation of management activities) . In accordance with this principle, all management functions must be regulated. That is, both the governing body and the managed entities must act and interact on the basis of clearly defined rules, norms and criteria known to all parties. In relation to pedagogical activity, for example, today the assessment criteria are kept “in their head” by the teacher, and the student, as a rule, does not imagine them.

Principle 8 (uncertainty). The uniqueness and unpredictability of human activity in specific conditions, the presence of human free will determines the uncertainty of the activities of the social system. Including, the pedagogical process is largely unpredictable:

Both on the part of the student (students), his (their) reactions to the control influences of the teacher;

The same goes for the teacher himself. A teacher is a living person with his own problems, joys and sorrows, with his own moods. Therefore, his activities are also characterized by uncertainty.

Therefore, when planning any actions, the teacher must take into account the possible uncertainty of the situation and predict various scenarios for the development of joint activities with the student (s). And, in addition, in pedagogical activity always plays a significant role improvisation– the ability, in accordance with the situation, to quickly rebuild planned actions in a new direction. Due to this circumstance, they say that pedagogy is not only a science, but also an art.

Principle 9 (feedback) is perhaps one of the most well-known management principles. In accordance with this principle, effective management requires information about the state of the managed system and the conditions of its functioning. Moreover, the implementation of any control action and its consequences must be monitored and controlled by the governing body. This fully applies to the managerial activities of the teacher. For example, a survey at the beginning of a lesson is also a means of feedback for the teacher. Or a professor, asking students questions during a lecture, receives “feedback” - how the students understand him.

Principle 10 (rational centralization) – or, otherwise, principle of delegation- states that in any complex system there is a rational level of centralization of management: what exactly the governing body should take on, and what should be decided by the managed subjects/objects. So, for example, a lecturer can allow students to freely attend lectures, or, in the opposite case, mark all absent students. The teacher determines whether to solve certain problems on the board himself, or call one of the students, or whether the students will solve them independently in their notebooks.

Principle 11 (democratic governance). This is sometimes called the principle of anonymity. This principle is to ensure equal conditions and opportunities for all participants in the system without any a priori discrimination against them. For pedagogical activity, this principle means that the teacher must treat all students equally, not openly show sympathy or antipathy towards certain students, and not have “favorites” and “outcasts.” Which, as we know, is very often not observed in mass teaching practice.

Principle 12 ( adequacy). Or what's the same - the principle of necessary diversity. This principle in systems theory was formulated by U.R. Ashby XE "Ashby W.R." \ f “ a ". It states that when creating a system that can cope with a solution to a problem that has a certain, known variety (complexity), it is necessary to ensure that the system has even greater variety (the availability of means and ways to solve the problem) than the variety (complexity) of the problem being solved. Or she was able to create this necessary diversity in herself (she could develop new means and ways of solving the problem). That is, in other words, the system must have the necessary “maneuver margin”.

In particular, with regard to management: the management system (its structure, complexity, functions, etc.) must be adequate (respectively, the structure, complexity, functions, etc.) of the managed system. In other words, in relation to the pedagogical system “teacher – student (students)”, this principle reflects the ancient requirement that The teacher must know and be able to do more than the student(s). There is even a slang principle among teachers: “a teacher feels confident in class if he knows 10 times more about a topic than he tells students.”

This requirement is generally known. But in modern conditions:

The teacher knows and is able to do more than the student in the subject he teaches. And in other subjects studied by the student, he has long forgotten the material (in secondary school). Or didn’t study it at all (in a vocational school). Then it turns out that the entire teaching staff in total knows and can do more than the student. And not every individual teacher. The question is interesting and not obvious - in connection with the introduction of an object-based, including modular type of construction of educational content, the increasingly widespread use of the method of educational projects, apparently, subject training alone for a teacher will no longer be enough, his horizons must be significantly expanded;

Today, all the educational material presented to a growing person at school, college, and university is in the same vein with a much larger flow of free information coming from TV screens, computers, the Internet, and print media. Moreover, schoolchildren and students, as a rule, have much more free time than teachers to watch TV, surf the Internet, etc. And as a result, the student is often more informed, at least about current events, than the teacher. He seems to “know” more. And this constitutes a serious problem in modern education. Principle 13 ( unification). Equivalent systems must be described and considered within a unified approach (both in terms of their parameters and in terms of performance criteria). This does not, however, exclude the need to take into account the specifics of each specific system. For pedagogical systems this means, for example,standardization of requirements for the student(s) on the part of the teaching staff of the school, college, etc., i.e. all teachers and teachers of a given educational team must apply uniform requirements to students. The same Unified State Examinations as unified national requirements for the quality of general education. Or as unified requirements of state educational standards.

Principle 14 (efficiency). This principle requires that when managing in real time, the information necessary for decision-making arrives on time, and management decisions themselves are made and implemented promptly in accordance with changes in the managed system and its operating conditions. In particular, the teacher must immediately respond to certain actions of the student(s). For example, there is a well-known pedagogical requirement that deferment of punishment is inadmissible.

Principle 15 ( coordinated management). This principle reflects the requirement that control actions within the framework of existing institutional restrictions must be maximally consistent with the interests and preferences of the controlled subjects. For a teacher, the implementation of this principle represents a serious creative task - after all, in every situation, the teacher is faced with the unique personality of the student, each personality is deeply individual.

Principle 16 ( advanced reflection) – when developing control actions, it is necessary to predict and anticipate possible changes in the state of the controlled system. That is, the teacher must predict the development of events, build predictive models of the student’s (students’) activities.

Principle 17 ( adaptability) – the managed system is dynamic, and management decisions made must be revised in a timely manner in accordance with changes in the state of the managed system and the conditions of its functioning. For example, the process of developing a particular skill in a student goes through a number of stages. And in accordance with them, the teacher’s influence on this process should change.

Thus, a brief excursion into the general theory of management turned out to be quite useful - many requirements for a teacher and his activities follow from this theory deductively as special cases of general provisions. In addition, an appeal to the general theory of management allows us to systematize the management activities of a teacher. Moreover, it becomes clear that it is possible and advisable to transfer the results of research into problems of managing systems of various natures to pedagogical systems.

Now, after a brief excursion into the general theory of control, let’s move directly to features of professional teaching activity. It is clear that the object of the teaching profession is a person, and the subject is the activity of his development, education, and training. Pedagogical activity belongs to the group of professions “person - person”. One of the most important characteristics of pedagogical activity is its collaborative nature: it necessarily involves a teacher and the one whom he teaches, educates, and develops. This activity cannot be an activity only “for oneself”. Its essence lies in the reflection of activity “for oneself” on activity “for another”, “for others”. This activity combines the self-realization of the teacher and his purposeful participation in changing the student (the level of his training, education, development, education). But the transition of activity “for oneself” into activity “for another”, “for others” is characteristic not only of pedagogical activity. But also, for example, the activities of a doctor. What are the features of teaching activity itself?

1. Above we examined the managerial activity of the teacher, i.e. activities to organize the educational activities of the student(s). Are the features of pedagogical activity limited only to this aspect - the aspect manuals students (students), management process of education? Of course not!

2. The teacher is the most important source socialization student. In the broadest sense, a teacher is an example of a Human Being. The student “looks like in a mirror at another person” (K. Marx) and thereby fine-tunes, clarifies, and corrects the images of his self. And in this regard, it is extremely important that the teacher is personality: personality is formed by personality, character is formed by character. We all studied at school, at university... Each of us had many teachers. How many are there that are memorable, that influenced our character, interests, and life choices? A. S. Pushkin dedicated the following lines to his teacher A. P. Kunitsin:

Kunitsyn tribute to heart and wine!

He created us, he raised our flame,

They set the cornerstone,

They lit a clean lamp...

The brightness of a teacher’s personality is determined by his ideological conviction, moral position, and level of spirituality. An important role is played by the image of the teacher, including clothes, hairstyle, his charisma, his acting skills. Even when a teacher tells educational material, it is important not only what he says, but also as he says, as it contributes to the transmitted information your personal coloring, your personal attitude.

Where it acts as a simple pump that pumps knowledge into students, it can successfully be replaced by a textbook, dictionary, problem book, or computer. In this regard, such a teacher, a walking truth, has always been a humorous figure, the subject of jokes and ridicule, a comic character. Chekhov's “man in a case” is terrible because it represents an example of complete impersonality, completely disappeared feelings and thoughts.

3. The teacher must constantly learn by yourself. After all, as already mentioned, the educational activity of a student is always productive and innovative. And it cannot be superimposed on it reproductive activity of the teacher. Only productive activity for productive activity. Therefore, the third feature of pedagogical activity is constant self-development.

Thus, we have identified three main features of pedagogical activity, which collectively make up the system. It is in the aggregate, in the complex (Fig. 3). Figuratively speaking, the teacher is “both a boss, an actor, and a student.”

Rice. 3. Classification of the main features of teaching activity

Forms, methods, means of pedagogical activity

Talking about forms of pedagogical activity must be divided immediately. When teaching activities are carried out jointly with the student(s), these will be forms of joint activity, i.e. forms pedagogical process(see the next article in this series). When a teacher alone prepares for classes, designs pedagogical systems, engages in reflective analysis, etc. – this will be mainly an individual form of activity. In addition, the collective form is the participation of the teacher in the work of methodological (cycle) commissions, sections, departments, pedagogical, academic councils, etc.

Methods of pedagogical activity. Let us recall that in the previous article of this series (magazine “Specialist” 2010, No....), speaking about the methods of educational activity of the student, we divided the methods:

On the one hand, on theoretical and empirical methods;

On the other hand, into methods-operations and methods-actions.

In the same way, the methods of pedagogical activity of the teacher:

Theoretical methods-operations. These are mental operations: analysis, synthesis, etc. (Fig. 4). These methods are inherent in all types of activities without exception;

Theoretical methods-actions. These are methods of designing pedagogical systems (scenario method, planning methods, etc.), as well as methods of pedagogical reflective analysis (see. magazine "Specialist" 2010, No. 1).

Empirical methods-operations. These are methods of managing the educational activities of the student(s).

Empirical methods-actions. These will be pedagogical technologies (see the article “The Concept of Pedagogical Technologies” - “Specialist” magazine, 2009, No. 9).

Rice. 4. Methods of pedagogical activity

At the same time, it should be noted that earlier, in the previous article of this series, we examined the methods of educational activity of the student separately: methods of educational activity, methods of educational activity, methods of development activity - due to novelty of the problem. As for the methods of pedagogical activity, then we are moving away from the traditional division between educational methods and teaching methods (methods of developmental activities have never been written about in pedagogy textbooks). After all, the basis for the traditional division was only one circumstance - the division of the teacher’s activities into activities during classes and during extracurricular educational work. But such a division is not an argument - after all The teacher’s methods of activity (as well as forms and means) both in academic and extracurricular work are the same (Fig. 4).

Thus, in this article we examined the features, forms and methods of pedagogical activity. We will consider the means of pedagogical activity in the next article, among other means of the pedagogical process. As for the time structure of pedagogical activity (phases, stages), we described it earlier in the article “Educational project as a cycle of innovative activity” (magazine “Specialist” 2010, No. 1.

Pedagogical activity is the educational and training influence of a teacher on a student (s), aimed at his personal, intellectual and activity development, at the same time acting as the basis for his self-development and self-improvement.

Pedagogical activity has the same characteristics as any other type of human activity. This is, first of all, goal-orientation, motivation, objectivity. A specific characteristic of pedagogical activity, according to N.V. Kuzmina is her productivity. There are five levels of productivity in teaching activities:

“I- (minimal) reproductive; the teacher knows how to tell others what he knows; unproductive.

II - (low) adaptive; the teacher knows how to adapt his message to the characteristics of the audience; unproductive.

III- (medium) locally modeling; the teacher has strategies for teaching students knowledge, skills, and knowledge in individual sections of the course (i.e., formulating a pedagogical goal, being aware of the desired result and selecting a system and sequence for including students in educational and cognitive activities); medium productive.

IV - (high) systematically modeling students' knowledge; the teacher knows strategies for forming the required system of knowledge, skills, abilities of students in the subject as a whole productive.

V - (highest) systematically modeling the activities and behavior of students; the teacher has strategies for transforming his subject into a means of shaping the student’s personality, his needs for self-education, self-education, self-development; highly productive»

Pedagogical activity, like any other type of activity, is determined by psychological (subject) content, which includes motivation, goals, subject, means, methods, product and result. In its structural organization, pedagogical activity is characterized by a set of actions (skills), which will be discussed further.

Subject Pedagogical activity is the organization of educational activities of students aimed at their mastering of subject-specific sociocultural experience as the basis and condition for development. By means pedagogical activity is scientific (theoretical and empirical) knowledge, with the help and on the basis of which the thesaurus of students is formed.

In ways transfer of socio-cultural experience in pedagogical activities are explanation, demonstration (illustration), joint work with students to solve educational problems, direct practice of the student (laboratory, field), trainings . Product pedagogical activity is the formed individual experience of the student in the entirety of its axiological, moral and ethical, emotional, semantic, subject, evaluative components. The result pedagogical activity as the fulfillment of its main goal is the personal, intellectual development of the student, improvement, formation of him as an individual, as a subject of educational activity

12.Levels of teaching activity.

Like any type of activity, the activity of a teacher has its own structure. It is like this:

• Motivation.
• Pedagogical goals and objectives.
• Subject of pedagogical activity.
• Pedagogical means and methods for solving assigned tasks.
• Product and result of pedagogical activity.

Each type of activity has its own subject, just as pedagogical activity has its own. The subject of pedagogical activity is the organization of educational activities of students, aimed at students mastering subject-specific sociocultural experience as the basis and condition for development.

The means of pedagogical activity are:

• scientific (theoretical and empirical) knowledge, with the help and on the basis of which the conceptual and terminological apparatus of students is formed;
• carriers of information and knowledge - textbook texts or knowledge reproduced by a student during observation (in laboratory, practical classes, etc.) organized by a teacher of the facts, patterns, properties of objective reality being mastered;
• auxiliary means - technical, computer, graphic, etc.

The ways of transmitting social experience in teaching activities are:

• explanation;
• display (illustration);
• collaboration;
• direct practice of the student (laboratory);
• trainings, etc.

The product of pedagogical activity is the individual experience formed in the student in the entire set of axiological, moral-ethical, emotional-semantic, subject-matter, evaluative components. The product of this activity is assessed in exams, tests, according to the criteria of solving problems, performing educational and control actions. The result of pedagogical activity as the fulfillment of its main goal is the development of students:

• their personal improvement;
• intellectual improvement;
• their formation as individuals, as subjects of educational activities.

Pedagogical activity has the same characteristics as any other type of human activity. This is, first of all:

• focus;
• motivation;
• objectivity.

A specific characteristic of pedagogical activity is its productivity. There are five levels of productivity in teaching activities:

1. Level I - (minimal) reproductive; the teacher can and knows how to tell others what he knows; unproductive.
2. Level II - (low) adaptive; the teacher knows how to adapt his message to the characteristics of the audience; unproductive.
3. Level III - (medium) local modeling; The teacher has strategies for teaching students knowledge, skills, and abilities in individual sections of the course (i.e., knows how to formulate a pedagogical goal, be aware of the desired result, and select a system and sequence for including students in educational activities; moderately productive.
4. Level IV - (high) system-modeling students' knowledge; the teacher knows the strategies for forming the desired system of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in their subject as a whole; productive.
5. Level V - (highest) systemically modeling the activities and behavior of students; the teacher has strategies for transforming his subject into a means of shaping the student’s personality, his needs for self-education, self-education, self-development; highly productive.

To effectively perform pedagogical functions, it is important for a modern teacher to understand the structure of pedagogical activity, its main components, pedagogical actions and professionally important skills and psychological qualities necessary for its implementation.

The main content of the activity of a university teacher includes the performance of several functions:

• educational,
• educational,
• organizational,
• research

These functions appear in unity, although for many teachers one of them dominates over the others. The combination of teaching and scientific work is most specific for a university teacher. Research work enriches the teacher’s inner world, develops his creative potential, and increases the scientific level of knowledge. At the same time, pedagogical goals often encourage deep generalization and systematization of the material, and a more thorough formulation of the main ideas and conclusions.

All university teachers can be divided into three groups:

1. with a predominance of pedagogical orientation (approximately 2/5 of the total);
2. with a predominance of research orientation (approximately 1/5);
3. with equal expression of pedagogical and research orientation (slightly more than 1/3).

The professionalism of a university teacher in teaching activities is expressed in the ability to see and formulate pedagogical tasks based on the analysis of pedagogical situations and find optimal ways to solve them. It is impossible to describe in advance all the variety of situations that a teacher solves while working with students. Every time you have to make decisions in a new situation, unique and rapidly changing. Therefore, one of the most important characteristics of pedagogical activity is its creative nature.

The following components are distinguished in the structure of pedagogical abilities and, accordingly, pedagogical activity:

• constructive,
• organizational,
• communicative,
• gnostic.

Constructive abilities ensure the implementation of tactical goals: structuring the course, selecting specific content for individual sections, choosing forms of conducting classes, etc. Every practicing teacher has to solve the problems of designing the educational process at a university every day.

Organizational abilities serve not only the organization of the student learning process itself, but also the self-organization of the teacher’s activities at the university. For a long time, they were assigned a subordinate role: the conditions for training specialists in universities traditionally remained unchanged, and in organizing the educational activities of students, preference was given to time-tested and well-mastered forms and methods. By the way, it has been established that organizational abilities, in contrast to gnostic and constructive ones, decrease with age.

The level of development of communicative ability and competence in communication determines the ease of establishing contacts between a teacher and students and other teachers, as well as the effectiveness of this communication in terms of solving pedagogical problems. Communication is not limited to the transfer of knowledge, but also performs the function of emotional contagion, arousing interest, encouraging joint activities, etc.

Hence the key role of communication, along with joint activities (in which it also always occupies the most important place) in the education of students. University teachers must now become not so much carriers and transmitters of scientific information, but rather organizers of students’ cognitive activity, their independent work, and scientific creativity.

The role of the teacher changes radically, and the role of the student increases sharply, who not only begins to independently plan and carry out cognitive activities, but also for the first time gets the opportunity to achieve socially significant results in this activity, i.e. to make a creative contribution to an objectively existing system of knowledge, to discover something that the teacher did not know and to which he could not lead the student, planning and describing his activities in detail.

In order to manage the process of development and formation of university students, it is necessary to correctly determine the characteristics of the personality traits of each of them, carefully analyze the conditions of their life and activities, prospects and opportunities for developing the best qualities. Without the use of psychological knowledge, it is impossible to develop comprehensive preparedness and readiness of students for successful professional activities, to ensure a high level of their training and education, unity of theoretical and practical training, taking into account the profile of the university and the specialization of graduates. This becomes especially important in modern conditions, conditions of social crisis, when the crisis has moved from the sphere of politics and economics to the field of culture, education and human upbringing.

The gnostic component is a system of knowledge and skills of a teacher that form the basis of his professional activity, as well as certain properties of cognitive activity that influence its effectiveness. The latter includes the ability to build and test hypotheses, be sensitive to contradictions, and critically evaluate the results obtained. The knowledge system includes ideological, general cultural levels and the level of special knowledge.

General cultural knowledge includes knowledge in the field of art and literature, awareness and ability to navigate issues of religion, law, politics, economics and social life, environmental problems; presence of meaningful interests and hobbies. The low level of their development leads to a one-sided personality and limits the possibilities for educating students.

Special knowledge includes knowledge of the subject, as well as knowledge of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods. Subject knowledge is highly valued by the teachers themselves and their colleagues and, as a rule, is at a high level. As for knowledge of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods in higher education, they represent the weakest link in the system. And although the majority of teachers note their lack of this knowledge, nevertheless, only a small minority is engaged in psychological and pedagogical education.

An important component of the Gnostic component of pedagogical abilities is knowledge and skills that form the basis of cognitive activity itself, i.e. activities to acquire new knowledge.

If gnostic abilities form the basis of a teacher’s activity, then design or constructive abilities are decisive in achieving a high level of pedagogical skill. It is on them that the effectiveness of using all other knowledge depends, which can either remain dead weight or be actively involved in serving all types of pedagogical work. The psychological mechanism for realizing these abilities is the mental modeling of the educational process.

Design abilities provide the strategic direction of teaching activity and are manifested in the ability to focus on the final goal, solve current problems taking into account the future specialization of students, when planning a course, take into account its place in the curriculum and establish the necessary relationships with other disciplines, etc. Such abilities develop only with age and as teaching experience increases.

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FORMS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

1. Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning, like programmed learning, belongs to active learning technologies. It is based on the solution of some problem, problem (from the gr. problema - “task, task”). In a broad sense, a problem is a complex theoretical and practical issue that requires study and resolution; in science - a contradictory situation that appears in the form of opposing positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requires an adequate theory to resolve it. (Situation - French situation - “position, situation, set of circumstances”).

In the Psychological Dictionary we find the following definition: “A problem is the subject’s awareness of the impossibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of existing knowledge and experience.”

Problem-based learning is “a system for optimal management of students’ cognitive, creative, theoretical and practical activities, based on a certain understanding of the laws of the thinking process and the conditions for acquiring knowledge and developing cognitive abilities.” There are other points of view. Thus, A.E. Steinmetz considered problem-based learning “rather one of the promising ways to implement the principle of scientific character than a principle of teaching.” E. G. Mingazov resolutely argued that problematic is a didactic principle. V. Ya. Skvirsky rejected the opinion of E. G. Mingazov and believed that problem-based learning is not a method, not a form, not a principle, not a system, not a type of learning, but its essence is in “the specifics of interaction between participants in the educational process.” According to Ilyina, problem-based learning is not a system, not a method, but an approach that cannot be absolutized, but must be applied quite widely in order to develop the mental abilities of students. In addition to these ideas, in many works problem-based learning is considered not directly, but in context and more broadly, as a means of intensifying learning, increasing the effectiveness of teaching a particular discipline, etc. (The concept of “activated learning” is broader than the concept of “problem-based learning.”)

There was also no unity on the question of whether the problematic situation should be “created” or naturally “follow” from the very nature of the material. The majority was in favor of the teacher creating a problematic situation, regardless of whether it is a reflection of a contradiction that actually exists in science or is of a methodological nature (i.e., at this stage in science, the question is clear, but to activate students’ thinking, the teacher creates a problematic situation). However, there were authors who believed that there was no need to artificially create problematic situations, since the entire history of the development of scientific knowledge is full of real problems. They were also supported by the famous writer M. Shaginyan: “Nature is full of problems, and there is no need to create them.”

Why did such disagreements arise? In my opinion, because there are phenomena that are known to mankind, let’s call them objectively existing knowledge about these phenomena, scientific knowledge. But there are also phenomena about which humanity still knows nothing (our “space”). In addition, it is important to remember that there is also subjective knowledge, that is, the knowledge of an individual; it can be complete (an erudite person) and incomplete. Therefore, it can be argued that the problem arises at the junction of the known (scientific knowledge) and the unknown, and not at the level of subjective and scientific knowledge.

Disagreements in disputes were observed precisely in the mixing of the level of contradiction that creates the problem. One level is scientific, the contradiction between known scientific knowledge and the unknown, the other level is educational cognitive activity, i.e. the level of contradiction between subjective knowledge and an objectively existing, but still unknown truth for the learner. The second level is not a problem from a scientific point of view, although, judging by the definition of the concept of “problem” given in the “Psychological Dictionary”, the student may have difficulties that he perceives as contradictions. But this is not a problem, it is just a lack of knowledge. However, the awareness that he does not have enough knowledge to solve a problem is already a positive factor, because it is an incentive to improve. This is why honest ignorance must be respected.

So, we have realized for ourselves that the real problem is always connected with science, it contains an obvious contradiction, does not have a final answer to the main question of the problem, why this is so and not otherwise, and, therefore, requires search and research work. I will give an example from the life of the outstanding Soviet physicist, Nobel Prize winner, academician Igor Evgenievich Tamm. “He often had to swim “against the tide.” In the 1930s, he put forward the idea that the neutron has a magnetic moment. In different languages, famous physicists (including Niels Bohr) tried to persuade him to abandon this absurd idea: where does the magnetic moment of an electrically neutral particle come from? Igor Evgenievich stood his ground. And he turned out to be right.” As we see, he really faced a problem where scientific knowledge collided with an objectively existing, but unknown to mankind, phenomenon and he had to conduct a serious scientific search to obtain evidence that he was right.

Is this possible during the learning process? Yes, it's possible. But, you must admit that this rarely happens, since not only the student, but also the scientist does not always manage to see and solve a problem containing a hidden contradiction and gain new knowledge.

But what about the majority of students? Abandon problem-based learning? In no case! Just use it at a different level, at the level of students’ cognitive activity. And here we will distinguish between: a problematic issue, a problematic task, a problematic situation and a problem. We have already talked about the problem. Let's look at everything else now.

The problematic issue is a “one-act” action. For example, why do they say: “A cold south wind is expected tomorrow?” (You see the contradiction: southern, but cold. Why?) Answer: because it’s a cyclone. Could there be hot snow, fried ice, etc.? Such questions stimulate thought, activate thinking, make a person think (remember Socrates’ question-and-answer method!).

The problematic task involves a number of actions; to solve it, the student needs to independently conduct a partial search. For example, is it possible to link a given type of structure under given conditions, say, a standard project, to a specific area? This is already a fairly large educational and cognitive task, the solution of which requires a special search for a method of action or to find some missing data: conduct reconnaissance of the area, do a geodetic survey, examine the soil in the laboratory, determine the wind rose, etc.

A problem situation is a psychological state of intellectual difficulty that arises in a person if he cannot explain a new fact using existing knowledge or perform a known action in the same familiar ways and must find a new one. Here there is a need to think actively, and, most importantly, to answer the question “why”. Need, as we know, gives rise to a motive that encourages a person to think and act. This is the essence of problem-based learning.

There are four levels of learning problems:

1. The teacher himself poses the problem (task) and solves it himself with active listening and discussion by students. Remember the general didactic method of problem presentation!

2. The teacher poses a problem, students solve it independently or under the guidance of a teacher (partial search method). Here there is a break from the pattern, and space for reflection opens up.

3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it.

4. The student poses the problem himself and solves it himself. The third and fourth levels are the research method.

Choose which level is appropriate for your learning technology based on your students' skill level.

So, problem-based learning at the third, fourth level, and sometimes at the second level is associated with research, therefore, problem-based learning is learning to solve non-standard problems, during which students acquire new knowledge and acquire skills and abilities of creative activity, which is very important for engineer. Is not it? That is why in the 80s they “remembered” problem-based learning, and higher authorities sent corresponding “circulars” to universities and technical schools about the need to use problem-based learning in higher and secondary specialized educational institutions.

However, despite instructions from above, problem-based learning technology was slowly introduced into the educational process, since, like everything in life, it had its advantages and disadvantages. (Remember the joke: God created man, and the devil gave him an appendix? Or another example, the antonymity of language: good - bad, boring - fun, etc.)

The advantages of problem-based learning are, first of all, great opportunities for developing attention, observation, activation of thinking, and activation of students’ cognitive activity; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, innovative thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because it is acquired in independent activity, this is firstly, and, secondly, the interesting “effect of unfinished action”, known in psychology, discovered by B.V. Zeigarnik, works here . Its essence is that actions that were started but not completed are remembered better: “there is an actual connection between the beginning of an action and the expected result, and we are tormented by the unfinished, we remember what was not completed. It is always alive in us, always in the present.” An example of this is an experiment conducted by teachers of the Department of Pedagogy and Educational Psychology at Moscow State University: students were given a task. In the case when they solved it to the end, the next day they had difficulty remembering the conditions of the problem, the course of the solution, etc. If they were told: “That’s enough, that’s enough for today,” that is, the problem remained unsolved, the next day the students clearly remembered the condition and the beginning of solving this problem, although the day before they were not warned about the need to solve it to the end. This is the effect of an unfinished action. Does this mean that we also need to start and not finish solving any problem? Of course not. If a problem can be solved in the time allotted to us, then, naturally, it must be completed. But problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a time-consuming solution to the problem. A person finds himself in a situation like an actor solving a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not leave this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that strong knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

The disadvantages of problem-based learning include the fact that it always causes difficulties for the student in the educational process, therefore, it takes much more time to comprehend it and search for solutions than with traditional learning. In addition, as with programmed learning, the development of problem-based learning technology requires great pedagogical skill and a lot of time from the teacher. Apparently, it is precisely these circumstances that do not allow the widespread use of problem-based learning. But we must strive for it, and every good teacher uses it, since problem-based learning is associated with research and, therefore, differs from traditional learning, “since any research is a process of obtaining new knowledge, and teaching is a process of transferring already known knowledge.” It remains to add that problem-based learning meets the requirements of the day: teach by exploring, explore by teaching. This is the only way to form a creative personality, that is, to fulfill the ultimate task of our pedagogical work.

2. Business games

The pedagogical essence of business games is to activate thinking, increase the independence of the future specialist, introduce a spirit of creativity in learning, bring it closer to career guidance, this is what brings business games closer to the technology of problem-based learning, but the main thing is to prepare students for practical professional activities. In problem-based learning, the main question is “why,” and in business games, “what would happen if...”

Naturally, business games need to be prepared, keeping in mind not only the material itself, but also the students. It is recommended to start with simulation exercises. They differ from a business game in the smaller volume and limited number of tasks to be solved. For example: who is better able to use uniform standards and prices? Who will pay less for the use of production assets?

Simulation exercises are closer to educational than business games. Their goal is to provide students with the opportunity to consolidate certain skills in a creative environment and to focus attention on some important concept, category, or law. The condition must contain a mandatory contradiction, i.e. There is already an element of problem in the simulation exercise.

After simulation exercises, you can move on to role-playing or business games. In the educational process of a university, purely conventionally, this type of learning can be called a business game. This is rather a role-playing game, since the student does not yet fully master his specialty. A business game, in my opinion, is the playing out of a particular situation by specialists. Their purpose is to define a process or its result. The purpose of role-playing (or, conditionally, business) games is to develop certain skills and abilities of students in their active creative process. The social significance of business (role-playing) games is that in the process of solving certain problems, not only knowledge is activated, but also collective forms of communication are developed.

Typically, two types of game elements are used:

General situational tasks in psychology and management ethics related to the resolution of certain industrial conflicts;

Highly specialized tasks related to the content of a particular major subject.

Teacher's tasks:

Select the necessary illustration situations based on specific material and problem situations;

Prepare didactic material: task cards for each person, perhaps with a hint about the nature of his activity;

Select subgroups of students (3-4 people);

Set a task (problem) on which the group must express its point of view, for example: the opinion of a foreman, worker, foreman, site manager, etc. on a controversial issue, how to gain the trust of team members;

Think over expected answers and remarks;

Show interest in students, constant attention, etc.

Here, as in problem-based learning, all didactic methods can be used: explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problem-based presentation, partial search, research.

Positive aspects of using business games:

As a rule, students experience pleasure, there is high motivation, and emotional intensity of the learning process;

Preparation for professional activity takes place, knowledge and skills are formed, i.e. students learn to apply their knowledge;

Post-game discussion helps reinforce knowledge;

Operational communication (external and internal).

Negative sides:

High labor intensity of preparing for a lesson (for the teacher);

The teacher must be an attentive and friendly director throughout the game, and there can be several groups at the same time;

Great stress for the teacher, as he is focused on continuous creative research. In addition, the teacher must also be an actor (have acting skills);

Unpreparedness of students to work using a business game;

Not all teachers themselves know how to conduct a business game;

Difficulties with replacing the teacher who conducted business games.

General principles of organizing a business game:

1. Dividing students into groups of 3-8 people.

2. Unlimited number of participating groups.

3. Each group member has a clear understanding of their responsibilities.

4. A business game should be limited in time (class, week, etc.).

5. Mandatory analysis of the game after its completion.

The business game involves achieving how. educational and educational goals of a collective nature based on acquaintance with the real; organization of work in industry, economics, etc.

Expected efficiency:

1) cognitive: in the process of a business game, students become familiar with dialectical methods of researching an issue (problem), organizing the work of a team, and the functions of their “position” by personal example;

2) educational: in the process of a business game, the consciousness of its participants’ belonging to the team is formed; the degree of participation of each of them in the work is determined jointly; the interconnectedness of the participants in solving common problems is felt; all issues are discussed collectively, which creates criticality, restraint, respect for the opinions of others, and attentiveness to fellow players;

3) developmental: in the process of a business game, logical thinking, the ability to find answers to questions, speech, speech etiquette, and the ability to communicate during a discussion develop.

Business games are built on the principles of teamwork, practical usefulness, democracy, openness, competition, maximum employment for everyone and unlimited prospects for creative activity within the framework of a business game.

A business game can last not only in one lesson, but also for a longer time. For example, a business game to develop self-government or a business game “Duty Officer,” which a teacher at one of the colleges in Novocherkassk taught for a semester, turning an uninteresting activity for students into an interesting business game. The group is divided into subgroups of 5-7 people. Each subgroup is on duty for one week (first, second, etc.). Each subgroup has their own responsibilities. The foreman ensures the organization of work and is responsible for everything to the group leader. The assistant foreman assists him, replaces him, and conducts part of the work. The trade union organizer of the brigade is an assistant to the trade union organizer of the group, as well as the foreman in organizing labor discipline, leisure of the brigade, the physical organizer of the brigade is an assistant to the physical organizer of the group, ensures sports competitions with each other in the brigade and between brigades. A safety and sanitation instructor ensures it all. The brigade's caretaker provides it with equipment, monitors the condition of the premises and makes the necessary minor repairs. The controller - team accountant - ensures quality control of the work performed by the team, helps the foreman in accounting for the work of each member of the team. As you can see, responsibilities are clearly distributed. Since the results of the business game were discussed at the end of each week, a “handover and acceptance certificate” of premises and equipment was filled out. Students became accustomed to order and acquired the skills that they would need in their future professional activities as a master of industrial training in a vocational school.

Business games also “came into fashion” in the 80s. Many works dedicated to them have appeared. Business games were often called a teaching method, but this is not a method, but a teaching technology that uses, as already mentioned, all general didactic teaching methods.

3. Modular training

In the late 80s - early 90s of the XX century. Another term from the field of technical sciences “bursts” into pedagogy, namely “module”. They began to talk and write about the “principle of modular education”, “modular education system”, etc. Let's figure out what it is.

The word “module” (from the Latin modulus - “measure”) has three meanings:

1) in the exact sciences - the name given to some particularly important coefficient or quantity;

2) in mathematics the module of the logarithm system is used, i.e. constant multiplier for logarithms of one system;

3) a unit of measure, for example, in architecture, a part of a building that serves as a unit of measurement to give proportionality to the building as a whole and its parts; in classical architecture, the modulus is usually equal to the radius or diameter of the column at its base.

In pedagogy, a module is considered an important part of the entire system, without knowledge of which the didactic system does not “work.” In terms of content, this is a complete, logically completed block. It often coincides with the theme of the discipline. However, unlike the topic in the module, everything is measured, everything is assessed: assignments, work, student attendance at classes, starting, intermediate and final levels of students. The module clearly defines the learning objectives, tasks and levels of study of this module, and names the skills and abilities. As in programmed training, in modular training everything is also pre-programmed: not only the sequence of studying educational material, but also the level of its assimilation and quality control of assimilation.

A selected list of basic concepts, skills and abilities for each module must be brought to the attention of students. They must know their thesaurus (i.e., the range of knowledge, abilities and skills), with the assigned grade or number of points in accordance with the quantitative measure of assessing the quality of learning the educational material specified in the module.

Based on the thesaurus, questions and tasks are compiled, covering all types of work on the module, and submitted for control (usually a test) after studying the module.

The entire course may contain at least three modules. A course project, work, or assignment is a self-contained module that is completed throughout the semester. A cycle of laboratory work can also be considered a separate module if its completion does not coincide in time with the study of the module material.

When developing a technology for modular training in special disciplines in technical higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, it is important that each module provides a completely specific independent portion of engineering knowledge, forms the skills necessary for an engineer and thereby develops the engineering abilities of students. After studying each module, based on the test results, the teacher gives students the necessary recommendations. Based on the number of possible points scored by a student, he himself can judge the degree of his advancement.

Thus, modular learning is necessarily associated with a rating assessment of students’ cognitive activity, thereby helping to improve the quality of learning. However, not every rating system allows this. Chosen arbitrarily, without evidence of its effectiveness and even expediency, it can lead to formalism in the organization of the educational process.

In order to expand the teacher's ability to differentiate the assessment of students' knowledge and skills, it is recommended, using the results of module control, to determine the quality indicator of students' training on a scale of 0 - 5 with a step of at least 0.10. Such an indicator will allow us to evaluate even the weak knowledge of those students who have not yet reached the required level, but are studying with diligence. The transition from quality indicator to assessment is carried out as follows:

Modular training programs are formed as a set of modules. When determining the overall grade for the course, the rating results are included in it with the corresponding weighting coefficients established by the department. The sum of the weighting coefficients, including the exam coefficient, must be equal to one:

Mi + ? e = 1.

After the end of the semester, based on the module grades, the overall semester grade is determined, which is taken into account when determining the results of the final control in the subject. The semester grade is determined as a weighted average:

S c = ?? mi S mi

?? mi

where S c , S mi are semester and module grades, respectively;

? mi -- weighting coefficients;

n -- number of modules in a semester.

Students can increase their module grades only during the semester; they cannot be increased during the exam. Students can increase their overall grade only through examinations, which include the quality of answers to additional questions.

Overall grade for the course S g = ?? mi S mi + ?S e, where S E, ? e -- examination grade and its weighting coefficient. When conducting the final control of the exam, the questions should be general in nature, reflect the basic concepts of the course, and not repeat the questions of the module control, and students should familiarize themselves with the exam questions in advance.

As we can see, modular training is a clear teaching technology, based on scientifically proven data, which does not allow impromptu, as is possible in traditional training, and the rating assessment of a student’s training allows us to characterize the quality of his engineering training with a greater degree of confidence.

On behalf of the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the RSFSR, three Russian universities: the Moscow Energy Institute, the Ivanovo Textile Institute and the Taganrog Radio Engineering Institute, taking modular training as a basis, tried to develop a new teaching technology - RHYTHM, i.e. the development of individual creative thinking of students. Having divided the 36-week academic year into 6 cycles, here every sixth week students were freed from all types of current classes, completely devoting it to their intensive independent work and intermediate control of knowledge according to the modular structure of the course. A clearly developed rating assessment of knowledge was carried out at the following levels: starting, technical, creative, theoretical and synthesis. Naturally, such training was conducted in all disciplines at the university by all teachers. And this gave positive results, although not everyone liked modular training and rating assessment of knowledge, since the new technology is just as labor-intensive for the teacher as programmed and problem-based learning, as well as business games, and requires great professionalism from him. A lot of preliminary work is required to prepare banks of creative tasks, batteries of tests, assessment of knowledge, tests, etc. based on a rating system. In general, we need a clear program of training and control, a rejection of the authoritarian one and a transition to a pedagogy of cooperation, which is based on subject-subject relations.

But for students, RITM brings positive results. The adaptation of first-year students to study at a university thanks to this learning technology is more successful than with traditional education, thanks to the features of the RHYTHM system, which includes a modular course structure, a cyclical organization of the educational process, level training, a rating system for assessing the results of educational activities and student learning, carried out by test method, absence of traditional test and examination sessions.

4. Waldorf pedagogy

Waldorf pedagogy is a unique form of education that developed in Germany. In 1919, workers at the Waldorf Astoria tobacco factory (hence the name) in Stuttgart, together with the factory director, proposed to the German scientist Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) to create a school for their children. R. Steiner, a follower of Goethe’s natural philosophy, wrote and published 300 volumes of works in many branches of science and art: medicine, cosmology, history of religion, architecture, sculpture, of which 25 volumes are devoted to pedagogy and education: “The general doctrine of man as the basis of pedagogy” . He was an erudite man, a prominent scientist, Andrei Bely, Mikhail Chekhov and others collaborated with him. It was he who created the first school, which, in accordance with the principles of alternative pedagogy, can be classified as a type of so-called free schools. At its core lies man as a spiritual being. The essence of Waldorf education technology is the development of a person’s ability to feel, that is, the education of feelings, the formation of artistic taste, the ability to create creatively based on knowledge of nature. (Not bad, right?) It was a bold step in the decadent mood after World War I. The main thing is that it was not the needs of production or the socio-political situation that determined the goals and content of education, but the person, his capabilities and needs are the leading principles of the content of education /98, p. 40/. (How modern this sounds!) In Soviet times, school teachers and university and technical school teachers were servants of the state, for whom the state order was important above all, and Waldorf teachers were “servants of the child” and not “servants of society.” That is why they say that “The Waldorf school is not a worldview school.”

The Waldorf school also differs organizationally from traditional schools. It operates on the basis of self-government, there is no director, the school is managed by the teaching staff, and parents participate in the life of the school. The school is free from centralized state regulation.

Currently in Germany, 1% of students study in Waldorf schools. Education there is paid and differentiated (for low-paid parents the fee is lower). A teacher's salary is also differentiated. Schools are independent, but the state supports them and takes on approximately 70-80% of the total costs without interfering in the learning process. “In “classical” Waldorf schools, education lasts 12 years. Those wishing to enter the university graduate from the 13th, “entrant”, class. The percentage of applicants to universities is lower, and sometimes even slightly higher, than for graduates of regular public schools.”

Features of a Waldorf school: from 1st to 8th grade, all classes are taught by one teacher, there is no rigid curriculum, no grades are assigned, meaningful assessment characteristics are used. After the 8th grade, classes are taught by subject teachers. The organization of classes is also different. During the first two morning hours, one general education subject is studied (mathematics or zoology, etc.). No other subject is taught on this day, but this subject will be taught daily for 3-6 weeks, creating what is called an "era". (Similar to modular learning?) In an academic year there may be, for example, 1 “epoch” in chemistry, 2 in literature, etc. After two hours of the “era”, classes are held in areas of the artistic cycle (drawing, music, eurythmy), as well as in foreign languages ​​(there are two of them). These activities do not involve sitting in a classroom.

R. Steiner set as his pedagogical goal “the revelation of the “secret” powers of a person with the help of a system of special exercises (eurhythmics, music, mysteries, meditation, etc.” Great importance is attached to eurhythmics (from the gr. eurhythmia - “harmony, tact, euphony"), i.e. the uniformity of rhythm in music, dance and speech is studied. Aesthetic education permeates all subjects, even “the teaching of subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle is taught by the class teacher not traditionally, but on a figurative-aesthetic basis (Goetheanism)" .

Labor education occupies a large place in the Waldorf school: book binding; carpentry; wood carving; knitting; modeling; sewing dolls, costumes, etc. Boys learn to work in a forge, cultivate the land, grind grain, build stoves, and bake bread.

Thus, the Waldorf school differs from the traditional ones. She found her followers not only in Germany, but also in Holland, Switzerland, Scandinavia, England, Austria, the USA, South America, as well as in Russia, in St. Petersburg, for example. There is school No. 22 in Novocherkassk, which teaches children using Waldorf pedagogy.

What can we borrow from the Waldorf school, which has become an international cultural and educational movement? First of all, personality-oriented pedagogy, humanization and humanization of teaching, development of students’ abilities to feel the world around them.

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