Echocardiography of the heart: the essence of the method, its benefits, how the procedure works. A small but significant sign that Russia is falling apart

This is, in fact, the same process that was actively underway in the USSR, starting from 1986-87, when, thanks to the policy of glasnost, it became possible to talk about what was previously strictly forbidden to talk about. And first of all, long-standing issues in the national republics were raised. There, processes of regionalization, that is, separation, sharply intensified, and then the question of greater rights or even separation from the Union (Baltics) began to be raised.

In the RSFSR then they also started talking about the rights of Russians. The nationalist communists (there were no other parties at that time) said that the Russians were the most oppressed people in the USSR, because the Russians, in Russia or the RSFSR, as it was then called, have nothing of their own, everything is union, they do not have their own academy of sciences, they do not even have their own Republican Communist Party. From here, by the way, this abbreviation of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation appeared at the same time in defiance of the CPSU. And how quickly after that the CPSU ceased to exist, but the escheat and bastard nationalist-Stalinist Communist Party of the Russian Federation, which with its isolationist policy essentially served as a catalyst for the process of the collapse of the USSR, go figure, still exists to this day!

Truly, these conversations about one’s own, about the republican status of something, the Communist Party or the rights of the “titular people”, most of all, corrupt any union, any federation.

To be fair, it must be said that in this moment Centrifugal processes in the Russian Federation have been slightly suspended, they are talked about less, but this does not mean that they have stopped altogether. Under the surface, these divisive currents will always go on in such a huge multinational and multi-religious conglomerate as the Russian Federation. It’s just that now is the phase of recession, the phase of stopping the disintegration process in Russia. Most likely, this slight slowdown in the disintegration of the country is due to the factor of fatigue from such global, tectonic shifts as the collapse of the USSR.

National elites in the republics of Russia are now in the stage of formation and awareness of their national isolation. A similar process was actively underway in the USSR in the 1960-70s, when, after Stalin’s strict ban on any nationalist talk and the strengthened policy of Russification, the republics began to form their own leadership elites, who then all together declared their rights.

Perhaps the Russian Federation will disintegrate according to the same pattern: first, the formation of a national elites in the republics, then a weakening of Moscow's dictatorship, then perhaps several national ones at once. The republics of Russia will raise before Moscow the question of granting them greater rights or even separating from the federation as a confederation. Moscow will have no choice but to gradually make concessions to its national republics; it is difficult to fight against everyone at once, and it is pointless to fight completely against one’s own country.

Schizophrenia creeps up unnoticed and robs a person of reality. The disease can be kept under control, but to do this you need to notice it. And she disguises herself too well.

Schizophrenia- it's complicated mental illness with many shapes. Its main symptom is that a person’s idea of ​​reality and his personality changes.

No one can say for sure where schizophrenia comes from. Most likely, genetics are to blame. But illness or stress can help her.

Unfortunately, many people simply do not reach specialists. This is due to fears and myths about psychiatry, and to the fact that schizophrenics do not consider themselves sick. A person with such a disorder is confident that he is healthy. Or that great truths were revealed to him, or that his great mission in the world is more important than everyday vanity.

At weak signs With schizophrenia, a person does not receive psychiatric help, and the disease gradually progresses and takes over his life.

Schizophrenia is one of the most common diagnoses in psychiatry. But not every psychiatrist can understand its forms. For ordinary person the main thing is to notice danger signs and either go to the doctor, or help the patient and persuade him to undergo an examination.

How does schizophrenia begin?

The initial signs of schizophrenia are difficult to notice. Most often it manifests itself at the age of 18-35. But you can always get sick.

Sometimes the first signs of schizophrenia appear in childhood or adolescence. Then the odd behavior is attributed to transitional age or character traits.

A person withdraws, communicates little with people, does not make contact and loses interest in what used to make him happy. Sometimes physical sensations become dulled: the patient does not notice hunger, forgets that he needs to wash and change clothes. Unexpected emotions appear: for example, a request to pass salt can cause irritation and aggression.

This would all fit the description of a rebellious teenager, a child experiencing severe stress, or a person weakened by illness.

The signs listed above are not a reason for a diagnosis, but just a warning that it is worth talking with a loved one and, perhaps, going to a psychologist to overcome stress and trauma.
Is it worth taking a person to a psychiatrist for every whim or because the relationship has deteriorated? No. Trying to find a disease where there is none is even worse than the disease itself.

Main signs of schizophrenia

True schizophrenia has two types of symptoms: major and minor. To make a diagnosis, you need either one major symptom or two minor ones.

Major symptoms of schizophrenia

Echo of thoughts. The patient believes that those around him can control his thoughts: read them, erase them, or, conversely, put alien ones into his head. This is not a funny idea like “What would happen if my thoughts were read,” but the confidence that this is so.

Delirium of influence. The person believes that he is being controlled. Programmed, hypnotized or exposed to rays. Sometimes a schizophrenic thinks this way about other people: everyone has already been deceived, only he sees the truth.

Voice hallucinations. The patient may understand that the voices in his head are only imaginary, or he may not realize this, talking to an invisible interlocutor. The voice can simply communicate and tell something, or it can also give instructions.

Delusional ideas that the patient sincerely believes in. Into the reptilian conspiracy, saving the world from aliens, encrypted messages from unknown civilizations, and so on.

Minor symptoms of schizophrenia

Incomprehensible speech. The patient explains something very important to him, but it is impossible to understand him. There is no logical connection between the phrases, but the person does not notice this. Sometimes the patient uses words that he himself invented to name the phenomena that exist in his head: “There are exactly 340 steps from the house to the corner. And yesterday the gabagas were digging up the balcony!”

Slow reactions. The patient does not react to others, falls into a stupor to the point of complete immobility. A person can sit and look at one point.

Negative symptoms. They are called negative because some skills or abilities are lost. A person loses emotions, interest in work, communicates little with people.

These signs are a clear reason to go to the doctor and figure out what is happening and how to return to reality.

What to do if a person has signs of schizophrenia

Some forms of schizophrenia lead to exacerbations. Roughly speaking, these are periods of illness when symptoms manifest themselves especially strongly and a person falls out of reality.

Patients do not understand what they are doing, they are in their own world, so it is impossible to predict their behavior. In the worst case scenario, the schizophrenic awakens into aggression directed at himself or other people.

What to do? Call doctors. While they are driving, try to establish trusting contact and calm the person down.

Do not prove to the patient that he is wrong, that the voices in his head only seem to him or that he is delusional.
First of all, he won't believe it. Secondly, he will mark you as an enemy. But something completely different is needed.

It’s better to try to understand what exactly seems to the person and play along. If the patient believes that the world has been taken over by reptilians and is eager to save the planet, tell him that you are an agent in the fight against aggressors and will now make him your colleague.

Sometimes a person does not lose touch with reality, but there are symptoms. The hardest thing is to persuade him to undergo an examination, but it is necessary. Unfortunately, no one can tell you exactly how to do this. If the patient refuses to go to the doctor, try to invite a doctor to your home, contact private clinics. The main thing is to get to treatment.

Current therapies are good enough to successfully treat schizophrenia.

Bird markings are hardly noticeable on radar screens. In addition, they can change their configuration, which is due to the fact that echo signals in most cases are formed not by one bird, but by several located within the volume of the probing pulse (i.e., reflected from a flock of birds). The total effective scattering surface from such targets is constantly changing. The flares produced by single birds fluctuate as a result of changes in the bird's body position and flapping movements of the wings in relation to the radar beam. All this complicates the identification of bird echoes on radar screens and requires certain skills from air traffic controllers. Often, controllers do not even detect mass flights of birds, which is explained by the habit of observing mainly fast-moving targets (aircraft).

Many echoes from birds may be dissimilar to each other, since their appearance depends on a number of factors: the size and number of birds, the density of the flocks, the body position of the birds in relation to the radar beam, the distance of the birds from the radar, and the performance characteristics of the radars. In this regard, it is difficult to give a single and accurate description of the signs by which one could confidently distinguish the echo signals of birds from other flares. Such a skill can only appear after acquiring appropriate experience.

However, all echo signals from birds are characterized by a number of features, the totality of which can be used to completely reliably identify them. The main distinguishing features of bird echoes are their size, brightness, shape, pronounced boundaries, speed of movement, image constancy and location on the radar screen.

Size. Echoes from birds on the screen of surveillance and control radars in most cases correspond in size to flares from small aircraft (see Fig. 6.7). The exception is echoes from single birds on the landing radar screen, which have the size of a dot, while marks from aircraft have the size of a spot (see Fig. 8).

Brightness. Large or small flocks of birds formed by large individuals give echo signals on the screens of surveillance and control radars, similar in brightness to marks from small aircraft (An-2, Il-14) and helicopters. Small flocks produce echoes similar in brightness to marks from balloons, pilot balloons, radiosondes, and clouds. The brightness of echo signals from single birds on the screens of landing radars is significantly less than that of marks from aircraft. Bird echoes are often brighter during the day than at night, as many birds fly in less dense flocks at night.

Form. Bird echoes most often appear on radar screens as a round spot or dot. IN in rare cases, when a large flock (thousands of individuals) is widely spread out along the front, the mark from it may have the shape of a line or an arc.

Expressiveness of boundaries. Echoes from birds do not have such sharp outlines as marks from aircraft and ground objects, and at the same time they are not as blurred as flare from clouds.

Movement speed. Most birds fly at a speed of 30-90 km/h, so visually determining the offset of their echo signals on the screen is in many cases difficult.

When flying downwind, especially at altitudes of 0.5-3.5 km, the speed of birds can reach 120 and even 150 km/h. In this case, you can relatively easily notice the displacement of echo signals and, by the speed of displacement, distinguish birds from stationary flares formed by ground objects, as well as balloons, pilot balloons, radiosondes, clouds and other objects moving at wind speed. However, when identifying echoes only by their speed, it is necessary to take into account the speed and direction of the wind at different altitudes, which can be difficult for air traffic controllers to do operationally.

The difference in speed makes it easy to distinguish bird echoes only from airplane and helicopter marks, since the latter move much faster on the radar screen.

Direction of movement. Birds fly in any possible direction, unlike balloons, pilot balloons, radiosondes, and clouds, which move only with the wind. Therefore, a low-speed target moving at an angle to the direction of the wind almost always turns out to be birds.

Image constancy. Echo signals from birds, unlike other marks, can sharply change their brightness, size and shape, direction of displacement, and sometimes disappear. This is due to the fact that birds often change speed, altitude and direction of flight, and rearrange themselves in the air. Inconsistency in bird echoes is especially common at night.

Location on the radar screen. Bird echoes can occur at any time of the day or night. However, their number, time and nature of appearance change significantly throughout the year, and according to certain patterns, which is associated with seasonal features bird flights.

In the first half of summer (breeding season), bird migrations are usually most intense in the morning and evening and at high altitudes. Most birds make these flights alone. Therefore, in given time year, echo signals from birds will be observed most often on the screens of landing radars in the morning and evening time, and their number will be relatively small. On the screens of surveillance radars in the middle of the day, you can sometimes also detect echo signals formed by large birds soaring above (eagles, storks, pelicans, etc.).

In the second half of summer (the period of post-nesting migrations), a sharp increase in the number of birds occurs and they unite into large flocks, which begin to migrate at low altitudes during daylight hours. At this time of year, the largest number of echoes from birds will be observed on the screens of both landing and control radars (relatively evenly throughout the daylight hours).

In autumn and spring, birds make intensive migratory flights, which occur around the clock and often at high altitudes. In this regard, in spring and autumn, echo signals from birds can be observed quite often on the screens of all airfield radars. Surveillance radars are of particular importance at this time, as they allow early detection of flocks of birds approaching the airfield. The appearance of numerous echo signals from birds on the screen of airfield radars can be expected throughout the day, but primarily in the morning and evening hours. On some days, the flight can be so intense that the surveillance radar screens are almost completely covered with echo signals. They move predominantly in one direction, often concentrating along sea coasts, large river beds and foothills. In many areas, the intensity of night migrations reaches high values ​​and often significantly exceeds the intensity of daytime migrations.

In winter, most bird flights occur at low altitudes and, as a rule, along certain routes (in the morning in one direction, and in the evening in the opposite direction), and often in complete darkness. In this regard, in winter, echo signals from birds will be detected most often on the screens of landing radars, mainly in the morning and evening. Their number can sometimes be quite significant, but not as large as during migration periods, and the movement of most echo signals can occur in one direction in the morning and in the opposite direction in the evening. Knowledge of altitudes, directions, routes and daily activity Bird flights in the airfield area make it much easier for air traffic controllers to identify their echoes.

Article publication date: 02/10/2017

Article updated date: 12/18/2018

From this article you will learn: what is echocardiography of the heart, and how important this method is in diagnosing cardiac pathology. What parameters and structures does it allow to evaluate, what diseases to identify. How to prepare for the study and how it goes.

Echocardiography is one of the most informative and safe methods diagnosis of heart pathology. This is a variety ultrasound examination, which makes it possible to visually evaluate the structure of the myocardium (heart muscle), heart valves, large heart vessels and the characteristics of blood circulation in them.

There are several synonymous names: ultrasound or ECHO of the heart, ECHO-CG, echocardiography or echogram of the heart. All these names are the same study. Doctors can conduct it and evaluate the results. ultrasound diagnostics, as well as cardiologists and cardiac surgeons who master this method.

The essence of the method, its benefits

Echocardiography of the heart is carried out using special ultrasound equipment, which contains:

• ultrasound emitting device;
• a sensor that passes through the chest and registers ultrasonic waves;
• a digital converter that displays an image of the organ being examined on the monitor.

Ultrasound waves passing through different parts of the heart are absorbed and reflected differently. The more accurate and modern the equipment, the more accurately you can see (visualize) not only general structure, but also small details of the structure of the heart and features of blood circulation.

ECHO-CG along with ECG (electrocardiography) are the simplest, harmless and accessible, but at the same time informative diagnostic methods that provide comprehensive information about the condition of the heart.

Indications: who needs such diagnostics

Ultrasound of the heart is indicated for all patients with cardiac pathology, as well as people with the following symptoms:

Considering the ease of performance and safety of echocardiography, it is done not only to monitor the progress of a person’s existing cardiac pathology, but even if it is suspected. There are no absolute contraindications.

What does this procedure show, what diseases does it reveal?

Diagnosis of the heart using ultrasound can provide basic, but not all, information about the condition of this organ.

The table describes the main parameters for evaluation by echocardiography and possible pathology, which is diagnosed based on these data even without taking into account the results of an ECG (electrocardiogram).

What can be assessed	Frequent deviations from the norm	Diseases that can be diagnosed
Heart sizes	Increased	Cardiomyopathy, cardiomegaly, myocarditis, cardiosclerosis
Myocardial characteristics	Thickened
	Compacted, heterogeneous
	Istonchen	, heart failure
Volume of ventricles and atria	Increased
	Reduced	Restrictive cardiomyopathy
Condition of valves (aorta, mitral)	Thickened	Endocarditis
	They don't close	Defects - valve insufficiency
	Do not open	Defects – valve stenosis, mitral prolapse
Aortic size and wall	Enlarged, expanded	Aneurysm of the aorta and heart
	Dense	Atherosclerosis
Characteristics pulmonary artery	Dilated, pressure increased	Signs pulmonary hypertension(thromboembolism, pneumofibrosis)
Emission volume	Reduced	Heart failure, cardiomyopathy, defects
Residual volume	Increased
Pericardial cavity	The pericardium is thickened	Pericarditis (inflammation), hydropericardium (effusion)
	Presence of liquid
Movement of blood between atria, ventricles and vessels	Regurgitation (backflow of blood) on the valves	Defects – mitral and aortic valve insufficiency
	Shunt between the aorta and pulmonary artery	Congenital defect – patent ductus Botallus
	Reset in the oval window area	Open oval window, atrial septal defect
	Interventricular shunting	Ventricular septal defect
Additional education	Nodes, thickenings, strands, additional shadows	Tumors, blood clots in the lumen of the heart and large vessels

Approximate norms for the size of heart structures for deciphering ultrasound results

According to the data obtained during cardiac ECHO, some diagnoses can be established accurately, and some can be assumed. In the second case, patients need a more extensive examination depending on the expected pathology (ECG, Holter, tomography, blood tests).

Types of echocardiography

Not every echocardiography has all the diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. Depending on the class of ultrasound equipment and the examination procedure, there are:

1. Standard ECHO-CG - one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional ultrasound. It is also called transthoracic, it is carried out through contact with the skin in the area chest. Provides information about the structure of the heart, but cannot determine the characteristics of blood circulation in it.
2. – the study is expanded compared to the standard one. Determines the characteristics of blood flow in the atria, ventricles, valves and large vessels.
3. Stress echocardiography – ultrasound of the heart during performance stress tests. May be required to diagnose only certain diseases (for example, valve defects).
4. Transesophageal ECHO is an examination of the heart with a special sensor through the wall of the esophagus during fibrogastroscopy. Rarely required, but can provide important information about pathology in the deep parts of the myocardium.

The gold standard for ultrasound examination of the heart is two-dimensional ECHO with Doppler and duplex amplification.

Preparation and conduct of the study

No special preparation is required for standard and Doppler echocardiography of the heart, as well as for ECG. This means that such a study can be done by any person who has indications at any time without any restrictions. The only factors influencing the reliability of the results are the quality of the equipment and the qualifications of the cardiologist.

Transesophageal ECHO-CG is performed only on an empty stomach (the last meal is 8-10 hours before). And when it is required that the patient be in a stationary position for the purpose of a detailed examination, the examination is carried out under anesthesia.

The standard ECHO-CG procedure is technically simple and harmless:

• The subject lies down on the couch. The examination is carried out in two positions: on the back and on the left side.
• The doctor sets up the device and sequentially installs the sensor at several points of the chest in the projection of the heart, aorta and pulmonary artery. At this time, the patient must lie quietly and follow all the doctor’s commands (breathe smoothly, hold your breath while inhaling, change position, etc.).
• To improve the transmission of ultrasound signals, a special gel is applied to the skin of the left half of the chest, along which the sensor will slide. At the end of the study, the gel should be wiped with a towel or napkin.

The total duration of echocardiography is from 7–10 minutes to half an hour. The most important thing is that it can be carried out as many times as required to assess the condition of the heart and the dynamics of the course. pathological process. The technique is harmless and painless, therefore absolute contraindications does not exist to her.

Ultrasound of the heart is a highly accurate diagnostic method large quantity, but not all. Therefore, the indications for its implementation and the scope of other examinations should be decided by a specialist!

Logical concept

Human thinking is different from mental activity animals, first of all, because he has the ability to think generally about objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world in the form of concepts. Moreover, knowledge of reality is realized through the formation of concepts and operating with them. The concept acts both as an initial element of cognition and as its result. Any logical form has a conceptual character.

Logical characteristics of the concept

Irrelative - these are concepts in which objects are conceived that exist independently, regardless of another object: “farmer”, “rule”, “village”, “man”, etc.

Positive ones are concepts whose content consists of properties inherent in the subject: “principles,” “noble deed,” “living within one’s means,” “successful student,” etc.

Negative concepts are those whose content indicates the absence of certain properties in an object (for example, “an ugly act,” “an unpainted house,” “an unmown meadow,” etc.). In Russian, negative concepts are usually expressed by words with negative prefixes “not” or “without” (“bes "):“illiterate”, “unbeliever”, “lawlessness”, “disorder”, etc. In words of foreign origin - most often words with a negative prefix “a”: “agnosticism”, “immoral”, etc.

Collective concepts are those in which a group of homogeneous objects is thought of as a single whole: “forest”, “constellation”, “grove”, “student construction team”, etc. The content of a collective concept cannot be attributed to each individual element included in the scope of this concept.

Non-collective concepts are those concepts whose content can be attributed to each object of a given class, which is covered by the concept: “tree”, “star”, “student”, etc.

Determining which of these types a specific concept belongs to means giving it a logical characterization. For example, the concept of “inattention” is general, non-collective, abstract, negative, irrespective. Logical characterization of concepts helps clarify their content and scope, develops skills for more accurate use of concepts in the process of reasoning.

In relation to intersection, there are concepts whose volumes partially coincide. The content of these concepts is different. For example, intersecting concepts are “student” and “philatelist” (A And IN not all students are philatelists, and not all philatelists are students. In the combined (shaded) part of the circles are those students who are philatelists.

In a relationship submission there are concepts, the scope of one of which is completely included in the scope of the other, constituting its part. In this relationship, for example, are the concepts of “hero” ( A) and "theater hero" ( IN). The scope of the first concept is wider than the scope of the second concept: in addition to the theatrical hero, there are other types: literary, artistic, television, cinematic and others. The concept of "theatrical hero" is fully included in the scope of the concept of "hero".

When illustrating the relationships between incompatible concepts, there is a need to introduce a broader concept that would include the volumes of incompatible concepts.

In a relationship subordination there are two or more non-overlapping concepts belonging to a common generic concept. Subordinate concepts ( IN And WITH these are species of the same genus ( A), they have a common generic character, but the specific characteristics are different. For example, "offense of office" ( A), "bribe" ( IN), "waste" ( WITH).

In a relationship opposites(contrary) there are concepts that are species of the same genus, and moreover, one of them contains some characteristics, while the other not only denies these characteristics, but also replaces them with other, exclusive ones (i.e., opposite characteristics). For example, " Democratic state" and "totalitarian state" ( A And IN), “us” and “stranger”, “bravery” and “cowardice”, etc. Words expressing opposite concepts are antonyms. The volumes of opposite concepts constitute in their sum only a part of the volume of the generic concept common to them.

In a relationship contradictions there are two concepts that are species of the same genus, and one concept indicates some characteristics, and the other denies these characteristics, excludes them, without replacing them with any other characteristics. For example, “knowing philosophy” and “ignoring philosophy”, “friend” and “enemy”, etc. The volumes of two contradictory concepts constitute the entire volume of the genus of which they are species. Thus, understanding the logical structure of a concept, revealing their types and relationships between comparable concepts makes it possible to move on to the consideration of logical actions, or operations, on concepts.

Definition and division of concepts

Conscious operation of concepts presupposes an understanding of their content. Each scientific term (for example, “civilization,” “state,” “spiritual production”) must be disclosed and the content of the concept expressed by this term must be established.

Definition of concepts

Definition(or definition) of a concept is a logical operation that reveals the content of the concept or establishes the meaning of the term. Every definition answers the question: “What is it?”

To determine the concept of an object, it is necessary to carefully study the object itself, compare it with other objects, and analyze its properties and relationships. It is clear that this is far from a one-time act. The definition is the result of a complex cognitive process, it to a certain extent completes the logical formation of the concept. But the content of concepts does not remain unchanged, therefore there cannot be forever established definitions. Their clarification is due, on the one hand, to changes in the subject itself, on the other, to the development of our knowledge about this subject.

Depending on what is being defined - the object itself or its name - definitions are divided into real and nominal.

• Real is a definition that reveals the essential features of the object itself: for example, “A trapezoid is a quadrilateral in which two sides are parallel and the other two are not parallel.”

• Nominal is a definition by which, instead of describing an object, a new term (name) is introduced, the meaning of the term, its origin, etc. is explained. For example, " complex sentences, in which one simple sentence is subordinate in meaning to another and is connected with it by a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word, are called complex." The nominal definition often reveals the etymology of a particular term. For example: the term "philosophy" comes from Greek words "filio"- I love and "Sofia"- wisdom, which means love of wisdom (or, as they used to say in Rus', wisdom). Nominal definitions are characterized by the presence in their composition of the word called(s)

Real And nominal definitions differ from each other in the purpose that is achieved by one or another definition. Real definitions answer the question of what this or that object is, nominal - what this or that word (expression) means.

According to the method of revealing the characteristics of the defined subject, definitions are divided into obvious And implicit. Explicit are definitions that indicate the characteristics inherent in the subject being defined. IN implicit definitions reveal the relationships in which the defined object is located with other objects.

The most common way to explicitly define is definition through the nearest genus and species difference.

Its essence lies in the fact that when defining any object, they point to the nearest generic concept in the scope of which the defined object is thought of, and call it hallmark. For example, "Barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure". In the above example, the genus is the concept "device".

With the definition through the nearest genus and species difference, similarity in structure genetic definition. Its essence consists in describing the method of formation or origin characteristic of the object being defined: for example, “Corrosion of metals is an oxidation-reduction process resulting from the oxidation of metal atoms and their transformation into ions.”

The process of concept formation has clear rules definitions that must be taken into account in mental activity. The following rules are distinguished in logic.

Firstly, the definition must be proportionate, those. the defined and defining concepts must have the same scope. Failure to comply with this rule leads to the logical error of “incommensurability of definition,” which has two varieties.

a) Too broad a definition: for example, “Logic is the science of thinking,” where it is difficult to distinguish logic from psychology, physiology, philosophy, which also study thinking

b) Too narrow definition: for example, “Logic is the science of forms of thinking,” which does not take into account that forms of thinking are only part of the subject of logic.

Secondly, the definition should not include a circle. Violation of this rule leads to a logical error, which is called “tautology,” when the defining concept only repeats the defined one. For example, “Light is the luminous movement of luminous bodies.”

Third, the definition must be clear and precise. Violation of this rule leads to ambiguity in definitions. For example, “A lover of life is a person who likes to live by himself and does not bother others.”

Fourthly, the definition must not be negative. A negative definition does not reveal the content of the concept being defined. It indicates what an object is not without indicating what it is. This is, for example, the definition “Logic is not sociology.” However, this rule does not apply to the definition of negative concepts (for example, “Antipathy is a feeling of hostility, dislike ").

Fifthly, Logical contradictions in the definition itself must not be allowed. So, for example, the concepts of “lagging behind” and “exemplary” cannot be used to characterize the same student, because they are logically contradictory.

Consequently, taking into account the rules for defining concepts helps a person improve the logic of reasoning and avoid logical errors in his activities.

Logical operations involve it's clear understanding the relationships between concepts not only according to with holding, but also in volume. A logical operation that reveals the scope of a concept is called division. Its essence lies in the division of a known class of objects covered by a given concept into smaller classes.

Division is a logical operation in which the general and the distinctive, as two sides of each thing, find their separate manifestation - in the subordination of species concepts to the general genus and in their subordination to each other.

The division of an object into separate parts should be distinguished from the logical division of concepts. For example, the integral representation of an aircraft can be divided into the fuselage, engine and wings, and as a result of the logical division of the concept “aircraft” we obtain its types - civil and military aircraft. Moreover, these types of aircraft can be further divided according to their purpose, technical specifications etc. Let's give another example. Thus, a tree can be divided into a trunk, branches, roots, etc. However, this is not a division operation into classes. In fact, the division of the concept of “tree” forms new subclasses: coniferous and deciduous trees.

It must be borne in mind that the process of logical division of concepts is based on specific categories. Thus, the volume of a concept that is subject to division is called a divisible concept, and the resulting species concepts are named after the members of the division. The essential feature by which the volume of a generic concept is divided into species is called the basis of division. Thus, the concept of “crime” (a divisible concept) is divided into such concepts as “intentional crime” and “careless crime”. They constitute the division members. And the basis in the considered example is such an essential feature as guilt. In logic, there are a number of types of division of concepts:

The classification, built on a scientific basis, has great importance, serves important means detection of patterns in a certain area of ​​natural and social phenomena. Reasonable classification can play a role important role in the development of our knowledge, to help anticipate the emergence of new scientific directions.

In the process of dividing a concept, it is necessary to follow a number of rules that ensure clarity and completeness of the division.

Rule one. The division must be proportionate. This means that the total volume of division members must be equal to the volume of the generic concept being divided, i.e. IN+WITH A. For example, in the statement “sounds are divided into consonants and vowels,” this rule is taken into account. This rule guarantees against two errors: a) incomplete (with remainder) division. Thus, the division of the concept of “law” into state, administrative, civil, criminal will be incomplete, with a remainder; b) extensive (excessive) division. For example, the statement “By meaning, nouns are divided into proper, common and animate” will be broad and abundant. In this sentence, the concept of “animate” is clearly superfluous.

Rule two. Division must be done using the same base. Although the scope of the same concept can be divided in different ways depending on the chosen basis, however, with a single division it is impossible, along with the species corresponding to the basis of division, to name species that do not correspond to it. An error that occurs when this rule is violated is called “substitution of the basis.” Erroneous, for example, grandfather’s favorite address Shchukarya from the novel "Virgin Soil Upturned" M. Sholokhova to fellow villagers: “Dear citizens and old ladies!” Two reasons are mixed here - an appeal to people who are citizens of the country, and an appeal to older women.

Rule three. Division must be sequential. This means that the concept being divided must represent the closest genus to the members of the division, and the members of the division must be the immediate species of the concept being divided. You cannot move on to subspecies without directly passing on the specific concepts. Violation of this rule leads to a logical error "jump in division". This is the mistake people make when they say: “Means mass media are divided into state, commercial, local, independent and military." This is incorrect, since the media are divided into state and commercial, and these, in turn, are divided into a number of subtypes.

Rule four. Division members must be mutually exclusive. According to this rule, the division members must be subordinate concepts, their volumes must not intersect. Violation of this rule is associated with the loss of the division base. For example, when classifying wars they say: “Wars are just, unjust, and aggressive.” There is a logical error here. Wars of conquest are among the unjust wars, and therefore the members of the division “unjust wars” and “wars of conquest” are not mutually exclusive.

To classify concepts complex systems resort to operations with classes when new classes are formed from two or more classes. In logical science, there are the following types of logical operations with classes.

Firstly, operation of combining (addition) classes A IN . It characterizes the union of two (or several) classes into one class, consisting of elements of the component classes. For example, combining two classes of concepts - “teacher” and “sociologist”, which are in a relationship of subordination, we obtain the concepts “teacher-sociologist” and “teacher-non-sociologist”.

Secondly, operation of intersection (multiplication) of classes A B When carrying out such an operation, they look for common elements for two or more classes.

Third, formation of complement (negation) A And not-A This is the operation of forming a new set by excluding a given set from the universal class to which it belongs. Thus, excluding the set of “economy students” ( A) from the universal class of the concept “students”, we obtain an addition (new class) (not-A) - "students are non-economists." This can be represented in a diagram like this:

not - A A } =B

In total, these two classes form the general class “students” ( IN). Thus, human thought is formed and developed with the help of concepts about the objects of reality. The concept is a necessary component of any thought. It is inextricably linked with the logical formation of thought, which is expressed through such an important form as judgment.

Literature

1. Buzuk G.L., Ivin A.A., Panov M.I. The science of persuasion: logic and rhetoric in questions and answers. M., 1992.

2. Grzegorczyk A. Popular logic. M., 1979.

3. Zeget V. Elementary logic. M., 1985.

4. Getmanova A.D. Logic textbook. M., 1994.

5. Ivin A.A. According to the laws of logic. M., 1983.

6. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. Textbook. M., 1987.

7. Brief dictionary of logic. M., 1991.

8. Uemov A.I. Logical errors: how they interfere with correct thinking. M., 1958.