Methods for diagnosing animal diseases. Laboratory diagnostics of animals at the world level
* This work is not scientific work, is not a final qualifying work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information intended for use as a source of material for self-study educational works.
Introduction
1. Preliminary information about the animal
1.1. Animal registration
1.2. Anamnesis
1.3. Life history Anamnesis vitae
1.4. History of the disease Anamnesis morbi
2. Own research
2.1. General examination of the animal
3. Methods for clinical examination of animals
4. Laboratory research
5. Literature used
Introduction
1. Preliminary information about the animal
1.1. Animal registration
Species: dog;
Gender: male;
Age: 7.5 years;
Breed: Collie (long-haired);
Color: marble;
Live weight: 20 kg;
Nickname or number: Robin, brand OAV 013;
1.2. Anamnesis
The dog is kept in a city apartment; the living conditions and microclimate correspond to the norm and provide comfortable living conditions in this environment.
Daily routine: 07:00 walk, 7:30 feeding, wakefulness, sleep, second walk at 19:00, second feeding 23:ºº sleep. Access to water is free.
Life history (Anamnesis vitae)
Date of birth 08/26/2003, animal origin: nursery. Preventive vaccinations: the first vaccination was given at the age of 9 weeks against canine distemper, the second was given 2 weeks later. The animal is vaccinated once a year. Every six months the dog takes anti-helminth medications.
Feeding conditions: in the morning the dog is given dry food Pedigree 300 g. In the evening rolled oats porridge with meat. Diet: oatmeal porridge, buckwheat, meat, vegetables, dry food, raw chicken egg, free access to water. Boiled water is provided.
History of illness (Anamnesis morbi)
In the fall of 2008, the dog had otitis media. The animal constantly scratched its ear and shook its head. The temperature was elevated, the inside of the auricle was scratched due to scratching, hyperemia and pain were noted.
Treatment:1. ear drops Otoferonol-gold, 2. Analgin (at night), 3. Amoxicillin.
In the spring of 2011 I had lichen. The dog had areas of baldness, accompanied by itching and hyperemia. Refused food.
Treatment: 1. Vaccine Polivac - TM (against dermatomycosis of dogs). 2. Fungoterbin.
2. Own research
2.1. General examination of the animal
The condition of the animal during the study was healthy. Body temperature (rectal) - 38.7 C0, pulse - 70 beats/min, respiration - 18 breaths/min.
Constitution - weak;
Fatness - satisfactory;
Pose - natural;
The constitution is delicate;
Temperament - lively, disposition - kind;
Skin and skin examination
Skin - hair is located correctly, shiny, long, thick.
Skin examination:
Color - gray;
Elasticity - preserved;
The skin is moderately warm, the temperature is equally expressed in symmetrical areas;
Humidity - normal;
The smell is specific;
Horny skin formations
the form is correct;
integrity - not broken;
surface - smooth;
consistency - solid;
shine - no (dull);
local temperature is normal.
Examination of mucous membranes
Mucous membranes of the eyes:
color - pale pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling - absent.
Nasal mucosa:
color - pale pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling - absent.
Oral mucosa
color - red-pink;
humidity - moderate;
integrity - not broken;
swelling - absent.
Lymph node examination
Lymph nodes (inguinal) - not enlarged, bean-shaped, smooth, mobile, elastic, dense, painless. There is no increase in local temperature.
Study of muscles, bones, joints
The muscles are poorly developed and symmetrical. The tone is normal. There is no muscle soreness on palpation.
The bones are proportional to the skeleton, there is no deformation, there is no curvature of the spine, there is no pain.
Joints - without pathology.
Research of the cardiovascular system
Study of the cardiac region
Cardiac impulse: Localized in the 5th intercostal space, below the middle of the lower third of the chest (better expressed on the left), rhythmic, moderate. The cardiac region is painless on palpation.
Heart percussion: 3-6 rib. The lower border is the chest bone, upper limit shoulder-shoulder joint; absolute dullness in the 4th-6th intercostal space, its anterior border begins from the middle of the sternum parallel to the caudal edge of the 4th rib. It runs vertically to the costal symphyses, and the dorsal border runs horizontally into the 5th intercostal space and reaches the 6th intercostal space, forming a curve curved backwards; caudally, without a sharp boundary, it passes into the zone of hepatic dullness, and from the midline of the sternum into the right-sided cardiac dullness in the 4th intercostal space of the dorsal upper edge of the sternum, while one merging zone of dullness is formed on the ventral part of the chest, well defined in a sitting position.
Heart sounds: loud, clear, clear without changes.
Vascular examination
Arterial pulse: 70 beats/min, rhythmic, medium, hard, full, uniform, strong.
Respiratory system examination
Upper section
No nasal discharge;
Exhaled air is moderately warm, odorless;
No cough;
The nasal mucosa is pink, moist, without cracks or rashes;
When percussed, the paranasal cavities give a boxed sound, which indicates the absence of exudate.
During auscultation of the larynx and trachea, the noise of a guttural knock is detected, without pathological noises, no wheezing is detected; upon external examination, the physiological position of the head and neck is not forced; palpation revealed no deformation, pain or increased temperature in this area; Upon internal examination of tissue edema, there is no increase in volume.
Chest examination
The shape of the chest is sharply narrowed;
The number of respiratory movements per minute is 18;
There is no pain on palpation, the local temperature does not differ from the temperature of the surrounding tissues, and no vibration noises are detected. Percussion borders of the lungs: the posterior border of the percussion field crosses the macular line in the 11th intercostal space, the line of the ischial tuberosity in the 10th intercostal space, the line of the scapula - shoulder joint in the 8th intercostal space; The percussion sound is clear, pulmonary;
Vesicular breathing is intense and sharp in nature, it is close to bronchial breathing; There are no additional breath sounds.
Digestive system examination
Appetite - good;
Feed intake - eats willingly; swallows food poorly chewed;
Reception of water is free;
Belching - absent;
Swallowing is free (not impaired);
Oral examination
The oral cavity is closed. The lips are compressed, overlaps, rashes, swelling, scratches, abrasions, wounds, ulcers are absent. There is no pain.
The smell from the mouth is specific;
The mucous membrane of the oral cavity is pink in color, humidity is moderate; There is no salivation, swelling, plaque, rash, or foreign bodies.
Gums - no violations;
The tongue is moist, clean, pink. Movement is free;
Teeth - there is no deviation in the number of teeth, there are deviations in size and shape (uneven, unequal), they are usually worn out, dental disease (caries, loss) has not been detected.
Pharynx examination
An internal and external examination and external palpation of the pharynx were carried out: the head and neck are located in a physiological relaxed position. No swelling was found in the pharynx area; palpation did not cause pain. The temperature in this area does not differ from the temperature of the surrounding tissues. On internal examination, the mucous membrane of the pharynx and tonsils are pink without swelling or redness.
Salivary glands: no swelling or tenderness was detected on palpation.
Esophagus: the passage of food coma and water is free. The size of the esophagus is not increased; There is no pain, swelling, or foreign bodies.
Examination of the abdomen: When examining the abdominal area, no changes in volume and shape were detected; palpation revealed no accumulation of fluid and no pain. On percussion, the sound in the intestinal area is tymponic. On auscultation, characteristic peristaltic noises are heard in this area.
On palpation: the stomach is empty, no pain is detected, there are no foreign bodies, percussion sound is dull - tympanic.
Intestines
Palpation revealed no abnormalities.
The liver is located on the right and left, adjacent to the costal wall and located almost in the center of the anterior abdominal cavity. The liver is not accessible to palpation. Not enlarged. The area of hepatic dullness occupies a stripe from the 10th to the 13th rib on the right, and reaches the 12th rib on the left.
Spleen
Not enlarged, the surface is smooth, the consistency is dense.
defecation
The posture is natural, the act of defecation is free, the passage of gases is rare,
The amount of feces is moderate, the shape is sausages, the color is brown, the smell is specific, the digestibility of the feed is good.
Rectal examination
The tone of the anal sphincter is moderate, there is no pain, the filling of the rectum is moderate. The mucous membrane is warm, moderately moist, not painful. No integrity violation was detected.
Urinary system
The kidney area is painless, the position is normal, not enlarged, the shape is round, the consistency is elastic, there are no stones.
Bladder
Located in the pelvic cavity. Shape - pear-shaped, filling - moderately filled, consistency - elastic, contents - urine, no pain.
There is no redness. Consistency - hard. There are no neoplasms or stones. Temperature is moderately warm, cross-country ability is free.
Urination
The frequency is normal, the posture is natural, the process of urination is free and painless.
Nervous system
The general condition of the animal is satisfactory.
The shape of the bones is without deviations, symmetrical, there is no curvature of the spinal column, pain sensitivity- not changed. Percussion sound is dull.
Somatic department examination:
deep sensitivity is preserved.
Superficial reflexes: cutaneous, ear, abdominal, caudal, anal, plantar - preserved;
Mucous membranes: corneal, cough, sneeze - preserved.
Deep reflexes: knee, Achilles tendon, elbow - preserved.
Motor sphere:
muscle tone - moderate;
muscle motor ability is normal, movements are coordinated.
Sense organs
Vision is preserved.
Eyelids - correct position, swelling, loss of integrity, pain - absent; palpebral fissure - normal; the eyeball is in a normal position.
Iris: surface - smooth; the drawing is devoured.
Pupil: size - normal; the form is characteristic.
Hearing organs - hearing preserved.
Sense of smell is preserved.
Musculoskeletal system
The placement of the limbs is anatomically correct.
Movements are free.
Endocrine system research
The location is not changed, there is no pain, no seals have been identified. Physiological development corresponds to age. Signs indicating endocrine disorders not found.
Conclusion
Epicrisis
While writing my course work on clinical diagnostics, I examined a collie dog named Robin using general and special methods studies (general examination, percussion, palpation, auscultation, thermometry, etc.).
After the clinical studies, we can conclude that the dog is in good physical shape and its health is normal. This can be observed in many clinical indicators. The healthy condition of the animal is ensured by good living conditions, proper care, and a properly selected diet.
The dog is kept in favorable sanitary conditions. Receives necessary examinations and veterinary procedures regularly and on time. Based on the above, we can conclude that the dog is healthy.
3. Methods for clinical examination of animals
Inspection gives an idea of the habitus. They determine the physique, fatness, position of the body in space, the condition of the skin and coat. And inspection of the painful area.
The examination was carried out during the day, in natural light. First, the head was examined, then the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvic part of the body and limbs. The examination was carried out alternately from the right and left sides, as well as from the front and back.
The examination revealed the animal's habit, the condition of the mucous membranes, hair and skin, the animal's behavior, etc.
Palpation is a palpation method that helps determine the condition of both external and internal organs.
The physical properties of tissues and organs (size, shape, consistency, temperature, etc.) were studied by palpation.
Palpation was carried out with light and sliding movements of the hands, comparing the results of the areas.
Superficial palpation was carried out with one and both palms, placed freely, feeling the area with almost no pressure. The skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, cardiac impulse, chest movements, blood and lymphatic vessels were examined. The tissues were also stroked, while the hand smoothly glides over the area under study. Stroking was carried out to determine the shape of bones, joints, diagnose fractures, etc.
Sliding palpation was used to examine organs located in the depths of the abdominal and pelvic cavity. Gradually penetrating deep with your fingertips, during the relaxation of the muscle layer that occurs with each inhalation and reaching a sufficient depth, sliding, consistently feeling the area under study.
Bimanual palpation (palpation with both hands) makes it possible to grasp the organ on both sides and examine it (bladder, part of the intestine, kidney) and determine the shape, consistency, mobility, etc.
Percussion is a research method carried out by tapping any part of the body.
Percussion established the boundaries of the organs and thereby revealed the size and quality of the percussion sound and the physiological state of the organs.
Loud percussion sounds were obtained by percussing organs and cavities containing air (lungs, nasal cavity). Dense organs (kidneys, heart) made a quiet sound.
Direct percussion was carried out with the tips of 2 fingers bent at the second phalanx. Short, jerky blows were applied to the surface of the skin of the area under study. Used for percussion of the maxillary and frontal sinuses.
With mediocre percussion, blows were applied to a finger pressed to the surface (digital percussion).
Auscultation - listening to sounds produced in functioning organs (heart, lungs, intestines), as well as in cavities (thoracic, abdominal).
Thermometry
Temperature was measured in the rectum with a mercury thermometer. Before measurement, the thermometer was lubricated with Vaseline. The temperature was measured for 5 minutes.
4. Laboratory research
Blood test
The dog's blood was obtained from saphenous vein forearms. The anticoagulant sodium citrate was added to the blood to prevent it from clotting.
Erythrocyte counting was carried out using the tube method. 4 ml of 0.85% sodium chloride solution is added to the test tube, and then 0.02 ml of blood is added with a pipette from a Sali hemometer and mixed. A Pasteur pipette is used to draw blood (1:200 dilution) and charge the counting chamber.
Red blood cells are counted 3-5 minutes after filling the chamber under a microscope (objective *10).
Counting cells in a large square begins with the upper left small square and continues in the second, third and fourth squares. Having counted the red blood cells in the upper row, move on to the lower row. All red blood cells that lie inside the small squares, as well as on the bottom and right sides, are not taken into account. The number of red blood cells is determined by the formula.
Hemoglobin content was determined by the hematin method. A 0.1% solution of hydrochloric acid is added to the graduated test tube of the GS-3 hemometer up to the “2” mark. 0.02 ml of blood is collected with a capillary pipette, the tip of the pipette is wiped from the outside with cotton wool and, without causing the formation of foam, the blood is blown to the bottom of the tube. The contents of the test tube are mixed and kept for 5 minutes. During this time, the mixture becomes brown due to the formation of chlorhematine. Add distilled water drop by drop, stirring with a glass rod until the color of the liquid becomes the same as the color of the standard. The amount of hemoglobin (g/100 ml of blood) is determined by the division of the scale with which the fluid level coincides. To convert to g/l, multiply by a factor of 10.
Urine examination
The method of obtaining urine is waiting.
Physical properties of urine:
Color - determined in a cylinder on a white background. The tested urine is yellow, transparent, liquid, with a specific odor. Density - 1.04.
5. Literature used
1. Belov, I.M. diagnosis of internal non-contagious diseases of agricultural animals / I.M. Belov. - Kolos, 1975.
2. Smirnov, A.M. Workshop on the diagnosis of internal non-contagious diseases of agricultural animals / A.M. Smirnov, I.M. Belyakov, G.L. Dugin. - Kolos, 1986.
3. Usha B.V. Clinical diagnosis Internal non-contagious diseases of animals / B.V. Usha, I.M. Belyakov, R.P. Pushkarev. - Kolos,
P.A. Parshin
Clinical examination methods
sick animal
Moscow
CONTENT
Introduction 3
The subject of clinical diagnostics, its goals and objectives 3
Development of clinical diagnostics 4
Clinical research methods 5
3.1. General methods of clinical research 5
3.2. Special research methods 9
3.3. Laboratory research methods 9
Concept of diagnosis 10
Rules for working and handling animals during their research 13
Case history 15
Scheme of the general clinical study and by systems 16
Introduction
In modern conditions of livestock farming, where the main role is given to animal health specialists in ensuring the creation of healthy and highly productive herds of animals, expanded knowledge on the clinical diagnosis of contagious and non-contagious diseases is especially necessary. The general morbidity and mortality of animals is mainly associated with their biological exploitation in extreme conditions: limited production areas, lack of exercise, violation of feeding rules and zoohygienic standards for keeping and caring for animals.
When studying the course on the fundamentals of clinical diagnostics, students need to master the knowledge of working with sick animals, master the methods of clinical examination, and learn to evaluate the results obtained.
Considering the great need for this manual on the basics of clinical diagnostics for students of the Faculty of Animal Science and Agribusiness, the team of authors tried to create it in accordance with the program in this discipline.
This methodological manual should help students learn the main sections of clinical diagnostics and master the schemes for the general study of animals and for individual systems. This will allow them to acquire skills in systematic research procedures, correct formulation of clinical signs of major animal diseases, and competent presentation of data in documentation.
The subject of clinical diagnostics, its goals and objectives
Clinical diagnostics (from the Greek diagnosticon - able to recognize) is the most important section of clinical veterinary medicine, studying modern methods and successive stages of recognizing diseases and the condition of a sick animal.
It develops research methods for normally and pathologically functioning systems and individual organs in order to identify factors causing a particular disease in animals, and provide them with scientifically based medical care and treatment. preventive measures. Clinical diagnostic methods are widely used in identifying and studying internal non-communicable diseases. They are fully used in diagnosing infectious and invasive diseases.
Modern livestock farming conditions require veterinary specialists to have comprehensive and in-depth knowledge to constantly monitor the health of animals, their level of metabolism and productivity. In these conditions, the basis of the activities of veterinary specialists is diagnostic and preventive work. For the organization of not only therapeutic, but also preventive and veterinary-sanitary measures, it is important to study the condition of animals and their performance. Knowledge of clinical diagnostics allows you to be able to analyze research results and, on this basis, make a conclusion about the health status of the animal.
The task of clinical diagnostics includes the study of rational approaches and methods of fixation of sick animals to ensure safe working with them. The main attention is paid to mastering the methods and procedure of research necessary to obtain comprehensive information about the condition of a sick animal. This complex cognitive process includes the study of the causes and conditions of the onset of the disease, the patterns of development of the pathological process, the location of its localization, the nature of morphological, functional disorders and the clinical manifestation of these changes in the body by symptoms that determine the clinical picture of the animal’s disease.
Products of high biological value and veterinary and sanitary quality in maximum quantities and with the least amount of labor and money can be obtained only from healthy animals. Therefore, early diagnosis of animal diseases, especially subclinical forms, occupies a leading place in the complex of zootechnical and veterinary-sanitary measures carried out on livestock farms.
A number of methods are used to diagnose animal diseases. Among them there are general, special (instrumental), laboratory and functional.General methods are divided into inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. They are called general because they are used in the study of almost every patient, regardless of the nature of the disease.
Inspection [lat. inspectare – look, observe] is carried out with the naked eye in good lighting or using reflectors, endoscopic devices. The inspection can be group and individual, general and local, external and internal.
A group examination is carried out when examining a large number of animals and with its help, sick or suspicious individuals are identified for further comprehensive examination. Each sick animal admitted for treatment is subjected to an individual examination. A general inspection is carried out on the left and right, front and back, and, if possible, from above. At the same time, the habit, the condition of the hair, skin, the presence of surface damage, and the symmetry of various parts of the body are determined. Local examination allows you to examine areas of localization of the disease process and can be external or internal (using lighting devices).
Palpation [lat. palpatio – palpation]. The palpation method is based on touch. A study is carried out first on healthy areas of the body, and then on the affected ones. In this case, palpation should not cause pain to the animal or resemble tickling. There are superficial and deep palpation.
Superficial examination of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, joints, tendons and ligaments. By firmly applying the palm of the hand, one can establish, for example, the temperature and humidity of tissues, assess the state of the heartbeat, and the presence of tangible noises. The consistency and tenderness of the tissues is determined by pressing the fingertips with increasing force until the animal responds. By stroking the palm, the character of the surface is established, and with the fingers, the shape and integrity of the bones and joints are determined. By gathering the skin into a fold, its elasticity is determined and areas of increased pain sensitivity are identified.
Deep palpation examines the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavity by determining their location, size, shape, consistency, and pain. Deep palpation can be external and internal. Deep external include:
Penetrating, when they press with their fingers or a fist on the abdominal wall and examine a certain organ, for example the liver, scar, etc.
Bimanual, i.e. with both hands, when it is possible to grasp the organ and determine its condition. It is most informative when studying small animals, foals and calves.
Push-like or balloting, when the pushes carried out on one side of the abdominal wall are caught by the palm of the other side. In this case, it is possible to detect the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity and establish the presence of a fetus in the uterus.
Deep internal palpation is carried out in large animals through the rectum ( rectal examination), to obtain data on the condition of organs located in the pelvic and abdominal cavities.
Percussion [lat. percussio – tapping] – a research method for determining the condition and topography of internal organs by the sound obtained by tapping the surface of the body with a hammer or fingers. Applying a blow to the surface of the body causes oscillatory movements of superficial and deep-lying tissues, which are perceived by the researcher as sound. It is advisable to carry out percussion in a closed, small room in silence. There are direct and mediocre, as well as digital and instrumental percussion.
Direct percussion is carried out with the tip of one or two (index and middle) fingers bent at the second phalanx. The blows are applied directly to the surface being examined. The sound is weak and unclear. Therefore, this type of percussion is used only when studying air cavities limited by bones (frontal, maxillary sinuses). Sometimes these cavities are tapped by applying gentle blows with the butt of a percussion hammer.
With mediocre percussion, blows are applied not to the surface being examined, but to a finger or plessimeter pressed to the skin. In this case, the sound is louder and clearer, since it consists of a blow to a finger or plessimeter, vibrations of the chest or abdominal wall and a column of air located in the organ being studied.
Small animals and young animals are studied using mediocre digital percussion. Index or middle finger the left hand is firmly applied to the skin, and the fingers right hand deliver jerky blows.
Mediocre instrumental percussion is carried out in large animals using a plessimeter and a hammer of various sizes and shapes. The pleximeter is tightly applied to the area of the body being examined. The hammer is held with the index finger and thumb with the other hand without pinching the end of the handle. The blows are applied perpendicularly to the plessimeter, and they should be paired, short and abrupt.
For topographic percussion, the blows should be of medium or weak force, and the hammer should be held slightly on the plessimeter. The research is carried out, as a rule, along auxiliary lines.
When percussing to establish pathological changes in organs and tissues, tapping is carried out with strong, short and abrupt blows. The pleximeter is moved in the area of projection of the organ onto the surface of the body from top to bottom and from front to back.
Auscultation [lat. auscultatio – auscultation] – a method of studying internal organs by listening and evaluating the sounds produced during their work. Auscultation should be carried out, if possible, indoors and in complete silence. Listening is carried out directly with the ear or using special instruments.
When listening directly, the ear is applied to the animal’s body covered with a sheet, and safety precautions must be strictly observed. In this way, large animals can be auscultated in a standing position. Listening to small and large lying animals is quite difficult.
Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or stethophonendoscopes. These instruments create a closed acoustic system, making sounds louder and more distinct. Listening begins from the center of the projection of the organ onto the surface of the body (with auscultation of the lung- in the middle of the percussion triangle behind the scapula, the heart - in the place of the greatest severity of the cardiac impulse), and then sequentially evaluate the sounds in other areas.
Thermometry [Greek. thermos – warm + metreo – measure] – a method based on measuring the body temperature of an animal. Thermometry is mandatory when examining sick or suspected animals. It is carried out using thermometers of various designs (mercury, electric, recording infrared radiation of the body).
In veterinary practice, they mainly use the maximum veterinary mercury thermometer with a division scale from 34 to 44°C (medical has a division scale up to 42°C). They measure the body temperature of animals in the rectum (in birds - in the cloaca) for 5-7 minutes. After each examination, the thermometer must be cleaned and disinfected.
Special (instrumental) methods require the use of various instruments. Among the methods of this group in veterinary practice, the following are most often used:
Endoscopy is a method of visual examination of cavity and tubular organs using devices with optics and electric lighting. The method finds more and more wide application for animal research, especially after the advent of fiber-optic flexible endoscopes.
Probing is a method of examining channels and cavities with special rubber or other (plastic, polyvinyl chloride) tubes called probes. They are administered to animals through oral cavity or nasal passages. Probes are also used to examine wound canals, fistulas, abscess cavities, etc. Probing allows you to determine the patency of an organ, the presence of foreign bodies, and also obtain contents, for example, the stomach. In some cases, probes are used for therapeutic purposes - to remove metal foreign objects from the mesh and rumen of cattle, restore patency of the esophagus, and gastric lavage.
Catheterization is carried out with special flexible or rigid tubes - catheters made of various materials. So, when examining the urinary organs, catheterization is used to establish the patency of the urethra, obtain urine, wash the bladder, etc.
Graphic methods involve obtaining a document, this can be a graph, photograph, radiograph, etc. Rhinography (recording a stream of exhaled air) and pneumography (recording respiratory movements of the chest) make it possible to determine the frequency of respiratory movements in an animal, their strength, and rhythm, which is important for recognizing shortness of breath. Gastrography and rumenography are used to assess the motor function of the stomach and rumen, respectively. Sphygmography (arterial pulse wave recording) is important for diagnosing arrhythmias. Electrocardiography (recording of heart biopotentials) is used to evaluate functional state hearts and recognize almost all types of cardiac arrhythmias. During phonocardiography, sound phenomena in the beating heart are recorded. These and some other graphic methods and their diagnostic significance are discussed in more detail in the sections devoted to the study of individual systems and organs.
X-ray methods are based on the use of electromagnetic waves of a certain wavelength - X-rays. Depending on the receiver of these rays used, a distinction is made between fluoroscopy (obtaining a shadow image of a body area on a fluoroscopic screen) and radiography (an X-ray image on a special photographic film, which after development is called a radiograph). There are also types of radiography - fluorography, electroradiography, X-ray photometry, etc.
Surgical methods make it possible to obtain material for subsequent laboratory and other studies. Among them, biopsy and puncture are the most commonly used. Biopsy is intravital excision of a piece of organ tissue. Puncture is a puncture of a body cavity or vessel in order to obtain biological fluid or tissue cells. Operative-surgical manipulations are carried out with special needles with mandrels or trocars of a certain design in strict compliance with the rules of surgical intervention.
It should be borne in mind that the list of special methods for studying animals is constantly expanding with the development of science and technology. Veterinary specialists are successfully used in clinical practice echography (obtaining images of organs and tissues using ultrasonic waves), biotelemetry (registration of information at a distance from the object of study), radioisotope research(studying the function and structure of organs using radioactive substances introduced into the body) and many other methods.
Laboratory methods involve the examination of blood, urine, feces, discharge, punctures, and secretions. A general clinical blood test consists of determining the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, hemoglobin concentration, counting the number of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets, producing a leukogram and calculating the color index. Bio chemical research blood includes the determination of indicators characterizing protein, carbohydrate, lipid, mineral, vitamin and other types of metabolism. Laboratory analysis urine, feces, effusion fluids etc. carried out in the following directions: study of the physical properties of the material (quantity, color, consistency, smell, impurities, relative density, etc.); chemical research to determine the presence of certain substances; microscopic examination.
Functional methods are used to assess the function of body systems as a whole or its individual organs. They are usually used when an animal has a decrease in productivity or performance, and clinical laboratory testing fails to detect any serious changes. In addition, knowledge of the functional capacity of the system is necessary to formulate the prognosis of the disease. In veterinary medicine, the most developed methods functional research cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, nervous systems, urinary organs (kidneys), endocrine organs and hematopoietic organs.
Clinical diagnosis (Greek klinicalis - the art of healing and diagnosticon - able to recognize) is the science of recognizing animal diseases. The need for such a science is most fully explained by the ancient saying:
Qui bene diagnoscit - bene curat Who diagnoses well, treats well
Those. Our discipline can be given another definition - this is the science of making a diagnosis. The textbook provides a detailed definition of clinical diagnosis - this is the most important section of clinical veterinary medicine, studying modern methods and successive stages of recognizing diseases and the condition of a sick animal for the purpose of planning and implementing treatment and preventive measures. In the literature you can find other definitions, of which there are currently at least eight.
Clinical diagnostics consists of three main sections, interconnected:
1. Methods of observation and research of the animal, i.e. This section includes the technique and procedure for using methods in the study of individual systems and organs; briefly it can be called “medical technique.”
2. Study of the identified signs, their deviation from the indicators that should be present in healthy animals. Those. this section studies symptoms and is called semiology (semiotics), from the Greek. semejon - sign.
3. Peculiarities of a doctor’s thinking when recognizing a disease - diagnostic methods.
The diagnostic process begins with mastering the methods of observation and examination of a sick animal. To the extent that a specialist has successfully mastered these diagnostic techniques, he will successfully identify signs of the disease - symptoms. Based on centuries of experience, a scheme for examining a sick animal has been created that allows you to obtain the most full information about the condition of the body and signs of illness. For this purpose, numerous and varied techniques and methods are used, which are constantly enriched and improved.
The doctor receives the information necessary for diagnosis from the story of the animal owner or from persons caring for him, when objective research patient using various methods (general, instrumental, laboratory, etc.). The information obtained in this case is recorded in special documents: journals of outpatient or inpatient sick animals, in the medical history or dispensary card. At the same time, PCs or computers are becoming increasingly used for recording information. Their use helps not only to store information about sick animals, but also to apply mathematical methods for diagnosing pathological processes, which is not yet practiced in veterinary medicine.
As we have already noted, the section of diagnostics that deals with identifying and describing the signs of a disease is called semiotics. A sign or symptom of a disease is a statistically significant deviation of a particular indicator from the boundaries of its normal values. We can say it a little differently: a symptom of a disease is the occurrence of a qualitatively new phenomenon, unusual for a healthy organism. We will dwell on the symptoms in more detail when considering the 3rd question of the lecture.
The diagnostic technique requires the ability not only to correctly conduct a study of the patient, not only to identify signs of the disease, but also to analyze the symptoms, group them by reason, find the connection between them and, based on this, make a conclusion, which is called a diagnosis. The chain of these logical arguments constitutes the essence of the so-called medical thinking, which, like any other, is characterized by the laws of formal and dialectical logic. The doctor uses in his work such categories as concept, judgment, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, creation of ideas and hypotheses, etc. This requires from him a large stock of knowledge, good memory, erudition, intuition and many, many other good qualities that you must develop in yourself. An integral part of medical thinking is the ability to work with animals. These skills will be required already in the first lesson in clinical diagnostics, since when mastering the discipline we will almost always be in contact with animals. At the same time, it is necessary to firmly grasp the rules of professional ethics and deontology.
Ethics is the science of relationships between people and the duties arising from these relationships. Professional ethics is a set of norms of human behavior when performing professional duties. It is closely related to deontology (from the Greek deontos - necessary and logos - teaching) - the science of a person’s professional duty. She studies issues of morality, duty and responsibilities of a doctor. The main task of veterinary deontology is to educate veterinary specialists in the spirit of serving people through helping “our little brothers,” i.e. animals. In 1998, the Council of our faculty approved the Moral Code of Doctors of Veterinary Medicine of the Republic of Belarus, which reflects the necessary professional and ethical qualities of a specialist.
The full text of this document can be found at our stand at the department, so I will only dwell on such a problem of medical deontology as disrespectful attitude towards one’s colleagues. Blaming the actions of another veterinarian in the presence of the animal owner or caring staff in order to gain cheap credibility has now become the rule rather than the exception. This is a clear sign of a doctor’s low culture.
Therefore, let us not speak ill of other doctors, for, as an ancient physician said, each of us has his happy and unlucky hour. Let your deeds glorify you, not your tongue. Compliance with this and some other moral and ethical rules will allow you to become real specialists - doctors of veterinary medicine and raise the prestige of our profession to the proper height.
As for the history of clinical diagnostics, it is rich in events, facts and goes back to ancient times, when man domesticated the first animal. The history of the discipline is presented quite fully in the textbook, which you will receive at the library. The history of our department, which turned 75 last year, as well as information about its employees is presented on the stands. By the way, the department’s premises are located on the 1st floor of the therapeutic building.
The main scientific direction of the department's employees is the study of diseases of the digestive system in pigs and cattle. We carry out scientific research of both fundamental and applied nature. The department often receives pets for research and consultation, as well as material for laboratory tests. Our employees also support the work of the Central Scientific Research Laboratory, which was created at the academy last year and is located in the Faculty of Education and Training building. This laboratory is equipped with modern instruments and equipment that are not inferior to the best foreign analogues.
In conducting research, we are almost always helped by your colleagues, students who study in the department’s student scientific circle. They conduct research, which they then present in the form thesis. We carry out 3-5 such works a year, and students almost always defend them at the state exam with excellent marks. In addition, our students-club members in last years regularly take first place in the republican student work competition. I invite you to work at the department.
The academic discipline "clinical diagnostics" is taught throughout the third year. A test is scheduled at the end of the fall semester. Coursework is completed in the spring semester. The study of clinical diagnostics ends with passing an exam in the summer session. In addition, somewhere at the end of May - beginning of June next year, an Olympiad in clinical diagnostics will be held, the winners of which will receive an excellent grade in the discipline without passing an exam. True, in order to become a winner, you must not only show excellent knowledge at the Olympiad, but also study during the academic year only with “excellent” and “good” marks.
The requirements at the department are generally accepted: mandatory attendance at lectures and laboratory and practical classes (how the registration of those present at the lecture and the laboratory is carried out, the procedure for working out absences). Everyone must have lecture notes written in person (to be presented at the exam). During practical classes you must always wear a robe and headdress.
Classification and nomenclature of diseases. Nosological units and forms
Nosology (Greek nosos - disease and logos - study) - the study of disease. Nosology is divided into general and specific. General is theoretical basis veterinary medicine and includes: the doctrine of the essence of the disease; issues of etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, therapy and prevention of diseases; issues of their classification and nomenclature. Particular nosology examines diseases of individual systems and organs.
Classification of diseases is their grouping according to a certain principle. Based on one classification or another, a list of names of individual diseases or a nomenclature of diseases is compiled. Modern classification and the nomenclature of animal diseases is the result of their long study. It can be species, age, etiological, system-organ, etc.
Species classification is widely used in private epizootology, where diseases are distinguished that are characteristic of different animal species (anthrax, pasteurellosis, tuberculosis, leptospirosis, etc.) and those characteristic of a single species - diseases of ruminants (leukemia, parainfluenza-3, catarrhal fever and etc.); equine diseases (glanders, horse disease, infectious encephalomyelitis); diseases of pigs (erysipelas, plague, edema disease, etc.).
In the age classification, diseases of young animals (dyspepsia, white muscle disease, rickets, diplococcosis, salmonellosis, colibacillosis, etc.), adults (ketosis, osteodystrophy) and old animals are distinguished.
Internal non-communicable diseases are usually divided according to the system-organ principle: cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, etc. It should be noted here that no single classification can cover the entire variety of diseases. Therefore, new groups of diseases are being proposed. For example, in surgery, diseases in the head, torso, and limbs are isolated. There is a pathogenetic classification - allergic, metabolic, congenital malformations. Diseases are also distinguished by gender, depending on the physiological state, etc. In conclusion, it should be noted that according to the requirements of veterinary reporting, animal diseases are classified according to system-organ and etiological principles, which are fundamental at present.
In some cases, the disease begins suddenly and lasts a relatively short time. Such diseases are called acute. Chronic diseases are characterized by a long course and may periodically worsen.
The main disease is considered to be the one that itself caused the provision of veterinary care to the animal (or was the cause of death).
A complication of the underlying disease is called pathological processes and conditions that are pathogenetically related to the underlying disease, but manifest themselves in other symptoms and syndromes different from the main ones: for example, perforation of the stomach wall in ulcerative gastritis causes acute peritonitis; with traumatic reticulitis in cattle, as a result of puncture of the mesh wall foreign body, the same peritonitis or even pleuro-pericarditis may develop.
A concomitant disease is considered to be diseases present in a sick animal that are not etiologically and pathogenetically related to the main disease. For example, hypovitaminosis A in a calf with white muscle disease.
More often, an animal may have not one, but two, three or more diseases (multimorbid pathology), for example, in cows suffering from ketosis, liver dystrophy, osteodystrophy, and rumen acidosis are possible at the same time. In such cases, the more serious disease is called the main one, and the other or others are called concomitant.
This division of diseases must be known to diagnose clinical diagnosis. Its formulation is carried out according to uniform rules: the main disease is indicated in the first place, the complication in the second, and concomitant diseases in the third.
A nosological unit is a more or less defined painful form, characterized by certain features of etiology, clinical and pathological picture. In practice, an equal sign can be placed between the concepts of “nosological unit” and disease. Examples of nosological units include gastritis, pneumonia, mastitis, and many others. At the same time, the disease can develop differently depending on the etiological factor, the strength of its impact, the individual and hereditary characteristics of the body, its resistance, environmental conditions, etc. As a result, the same disease in different animals takes on different forms, which are called nosological forms (examples: catarrhal, hemorrhagic or erosive-ulcerative gastritis; catarrhal, purulent or lobar pneumonia; serous, fibrinous, catarrhal or purulent mastitis). Consequently, nosological forms are a component of the nosological unit.
Symptoms of the disease: their classification, recognition and assessment of diagnostic significance
As already mentioned, the symptoms of diseases are studied by semiology (semiotics) - the science of symptoms and laboratory indicators of a disease. Along with the above definitions of a symptom, the following is generally accepted for veterinary medicine: “A symptom is all manifestations of a disease, which are based on functional and anatomical changes in organs and systems, established by clinical research and distinguishing a sick animal from a healthy one.”
According to clinical manifestation, symptoms are divided into:
Pathognomonic (specific) and random. Pathognomonic (Greek pathos - suffering and gnomon - to indicate) - certainly indicating a certain disease (presence of Babeshi-Negri bodies - rabies; detection of Babesia in erythrocytes - babesiosis). Random symptoms are not characteristic of this disease (jaundice with gastritis).
Typical (characteristic) and atypical (uncharacteristic). Typical ones are almost always found in this disease (dull sound in lobar pneumonia), but can also be found in other pathological conditions (exudative pleurisy).
Important and unimportant. Important - symptoms on the basis of which a conclusion is made, i.e. important when making a diagnosis (hypothermia, cold sticky sweat, rapid thread-like pulse - if the stomach or intestines ruptures in a horse). Minor ones do not have such significance (hyperthermia with gastritis).
Permanent and impermanent. Persistent or persistent are necessarily recorded for this disease (absence of defecation with mechanical intestinal obstruction; rare and weak contractions of the rumen in ruminants with hypotension of the forestomach). Non-permanent (unstable) - may disappear during the course of the disease (jaundice with hepatitis).
According to localization, symptoms are divided into:
General (fever, tachycardia, polypnea, etc.);
Local (presence of a dull sound when percussing the lung, rollback of the posterior border of the lung, etc.).
According to prognosis or prediction, symptoms are distinguished:
Favorable (the appearance of belching during rumen tympany, the appearance of appetite during gastroenteritis). Evidence of the animal's recovery.
Unfavorable (appearance of holop rhythm in acute myocarditis).
Threatening (no peristaltic sounds in the book). Presage death.
Hopeless (the sound of splashing in the cardiac membrane during pericarditis) in which the animals do not recover.
Recognizing symptoms is a creative process and requires the physician to have extensive knowledge in all clinical disciplines, as well as experience and patience. It is almost impossible to recognize the disease based on only one identified symptom. The largest number of diagnostic errors occurs as a result of insufficient research. Therefore, the most important diagnostic rule is the most complete and systematic study of a sick animal.
Recognition of symptoms is carried out in several directions:
1) the identified symptoms are compared with the corresponding indicators characteristic of a healthy animal of a given species and age;
2) symptoms are compared with those described in the literature for a specific disease or syndrome;
3) symptoms are classified according to this scheme;
4) during a repeated study, changes in previously identified symptoms are assessed.
The assessment of the diagnostic significance of symptoms is carried out according to the effect therapeutic measures, the outcome of the disease, the results of the pathological autopsy or anatomy of the animal.
Animal disease syndromes and their classification
Any pathological condition of the body is manifested not by any one symptom, but by a more or less constant group of signs.
This fairly constant set of symptoms is called a syndrome. Knowledge of syndromes greatly facilitates the recognition of the disease process and diagnosis, since there are several thousand symptoms, and much fewer syndromes (about a hundred have been described in veterinary medicine and we are only at the beginning of the formulation of veterinary syndromes). Currently, a syndrome is understood as a set of symptoms that are pathogenetically related to each other (from medicine).
However, this definition is not fully acceptable for veterinary medicine. Firstly, we cannot always find this pathogenetic connection, because The pathogenesis of a number of animal diseases has not been sufficiently studied. And secondly, many diseases of different etiologies manifest themselves in similar ways. clinical signs. Consider, for example, diseases such as enteritis, colitis, salmonellosis, paratuberculosis, mycosis, dysentery. Their etiology and pathogenesis are different. However, clinically they are almost always manifested by diarrhea, decreased urine output, thirst, thickening of the blood, and a decrease in the amount of total protein in the blood.
Therefore, in accordance with the level of development of veterinary science, it is more correct to give the following definition. Syndrome is a set of symptoms that are outwardly uniform for the affected individual organs and systems, independent of etiology and pathogenesis, characterizing a certain pathological state of the body or disease.
Syndromes cannot be identified with nosological units or diseases. They are included in the clinical picture of many of them, forming their basis.
Classification of syndromes.
By quantity: there are small (urinary: hypertension, proteinuria, hematuria, leukocyturia, cylinduria) and large (dyspeptic neonatal: diarrhea with polyfecalia, maldigestion syndrome, exicosis syndrome, polycythemic syndrome, sometimes pain syndrome, etc.) syndromes.
In addition, syndromes can be divided into anatomical and functional. Anatomical include structural changes in organs (dull sound upon percussion of the lung, dry and moist rales, crepitus - in the syndrome of infiltrative compaction of pulmonary tissue), while functional ones reflect dysfunction of an organ or tissue (decreased hemoglobin concentration and the number of red blood cells in the blood - anemic syndrome).
The intensification and specialization of livestock farming, the construction of large industrial complexes where a huge number of animals are concentrated, required veterinary specialists to develop criteria for assessing the health status of entire herds of productive animals. For this purpose, starting in 1965, the term “herd syndromatics” was introduced into veterinary diagnostics (Prof. V.I. Zaitsev).
Herd syndromatics are a set of economic indicators that give a general characteristic of the herd in terms of health. This is a group, comparative syndrome, studied in dynamics over a long period of time.
This complex, in relation to a herd of cows, includes: the productivity of cows, their weight, the average period of use, the intensity of culling and analysis of its causes, the dynamics of reproduction, the weight of calves and their condition at birth, the incidence and mortality of young animals, the incidence of cows with mastitis and others gynecological diseases, as well as the dynamics of clinical and biochemical parameters, assessment of the economic efficiency of ongoing veterinary measures.
Diagnosis of the disease and its classification. Nosological terms of diagnosis. Disease prognosis
Diagnosis is a brief medical opinion about the nature of the disease and the condition of the animal, expressed in nosological terms. The diagnosis cannot be considered as something complete and unchangeable, since it is dynamic and can change depending on the course of the disease, as well as as a result of therapeutic measures.
To formulate or make a diagnosis means:
Define the disease process;
Identify functional and morphological changes in tissues, organs and systems;
Determine the cause of the disease.
There is a distinction between disease diagnosis and individual diagnosis. Diagnosis of the disease (diagnosis morbi) is determined on the basis of a study of the history and symptoms of the disease, which are characteristic of all those suffering from this disease. An example of such a disease diagnosis would be pneumonia. Such a diagnosis does not reveal all the individual characteristics of the patient, and patients are considered as cases similar to each other.
Individual diagnosis (diagnosis aegroti) - reflects individual characteristics course of the disease in a particular animal in given time and under these conditions. It is placed only after a thorough examination of the patient based on clinical, instrumental, laboratory and other studies.
As an example, consider the following individual diagnosis: acute, parainfluenza, right-sided, lobar, catarrhal-purulent, complicated by right-sided exudative pleurisy, pneumonia. As you can see, the disease process has been identified - pneumonia, the cause of which was the parainfluenza virus. The nature of the inflammatory process, the functional and morphological changes in the organ caused by it were also revealed - acute, catarrhal-purulent inflammation of the entire right lobe of the lung. In addition, a disease complication is indicated. Thus, an individual diagnosis is the most complete or synthetic.
Currently, the following classification of diagnosis is generally accepted: according to the method of construction, according to the time of formulation, according to the degree of validity and according to the leading research method.
According to the method of construction, in turn, the diagnosis is divided into direct, differential, complete (synthetic), by observation, by therapeutic effect and situational diagnosis. Direct diagnosis or diagnosis by analogy is based on a comparison of the symptoms identified in a given animal with the symptoms of known diseases and is based on the principle: from symptom to disease. A direct diagnosis is possible in the presence of pathognomonic symptoms. Differential diagnosis (diagnosis per exclusionem) is made by excluding similar symptoms. Diagnosis by observation (diagnosis per ex observatione) is based on long-term observation of the patient. Diagnosis based on therapeutic effect (diagnosis ex juvantibus) is established based on the results successful treatment, specific for a given pathology, for example, in case of hypovitaminosis A by parenteral administration of retinol acetate or internally microvit. A situational diagnosis is established based on an analysis of the current situation. It is used most often in the event of highly contagious infectious diseases, without the use of special research methods.
Based on the time of detection of the disease, the following types of diagnosis are distinguished: early, late, retrospective and postmortem or sectional. Early disease - when the disease is recognized at the very beginning of its occurrence. Late d. - when the disease is the opposite, it is diagnosed at the very end. Retrospective diagnosis - a diagnosis made after the end of the illness based on the study of documents, analysis of the epizootic situation, and laboratory test results. Post-mortem (sectional) - diagnosis is made based on the results of autopsies of animal corpses.
According to the degree of validity, they are distinguished: preliminary diagnosis, final diagnosis and diagnosis in question. Preliminary diagnosis is most often performed at the very beginning upon admission of the patient, with registration and medical history data being the decisive factors. The final diagnosis - its formulation is the result of a complete examination of the patient using all available methods. If even after this there is no confidence in the correct diagnosis, then they resort to a questionable diagnosis.
According to the leading research method, clinical, epizootological, allergic, serological, microscopic, microbiological, virological, mycological, radiological and other types of diagnosis are distinguished. Those. here the method on the basis of which the diagnosis is made is of paramount importance.
The diagnosis, according to the previously defined definition, must be expressed in nosological terms. Nosological terms mean a set of words or phrases that are the exact designation of disease processes considered by veterinary medicine. Nosological terminology developed in the process of historical development of veterinary medicine and related sciences (medicine, microbiology, virology, zoology, etc.). At the same time, nosological terminology is constantly changing as a result of the death, disappearance of some old and the emergence of new animal diseases.
Forecast (from the Greek prognosis - prediction) - prediction of the development and outcome of the disease. The prognosis of the disease is determined based on:
Objective research data;
Knowledge of the patterns of pathological processes;
Knowledge of the essence of diseases;
Individual characteristics of the body;
Availability radical methods treatment;
Opportunities to create appropriate conditions for feeding, housing, etc. for the animal.
The prognosis may be favorable when the animal is expected to fully recover while maintaining productivity and performance. An unfavorable prognosis is given for incurable diseases. A questionable or cautious prognosis is suggested if it is difficult to accurately determine the outcome of the disease.
It is on the forecast that further veterinary and economic measures are based on the sick animal or group of animals. And in conclusion, if the forecast is incorrect, losses are borne by the owner of the animal, who, quite legally, can make financial claims against the veterinary specialist, whose authority will also suffer significantly.
