In our article today:

Introduction.

To maintain life along with intake nutrients, energy resources and oxygen, it is also necessary to remove metabolites and toxic substances from tissues. It has been experimentally established that with complete fasting (only with water intake), humans and higher Animals can live for 10-20 days, whereas if excretory dysfunction occurs, death occurs within the first day.

In addition to the kidneys, the excretory function is also performed by the lungs, intestines, sweat glands. IN Ancient Egypt friends when meeting instead of “how are you?” asked each other: “How do you sweat?” It is known that when profuse sweating the body is freed from many toxins, and this is very important for health.

Previously, it was believed that the removal of metabolites and toxic substances from the body mainly relates to the function of the blood flowing through one or another excretory system. It has now been established that excretory and many other functions of the body are closely related not only to blood, but also to lymph. Removal in various ways toxic substances from the body is possible with coordinated work of a single drainage system - lymphovenous bed. Scientific research lymph has at least

three hundred years ago. However, intensive study of it began relatively recently. It has now been established that lymph circulation performs numerous important functions, and its disruption leads to the development severe complications and aggravates the course of many diseases. Today, opportunities have been found to influence the course and development of various pathological processes in organism. Effects on the lymphatic system have become widely used in immunology, oncology, cardiology, toxicology, and traumatology. There was even a new term - “lymphotherapy”. Endolymphatic administration of various drugs is widely used in medical practice removal of “poisoned lymph” from the body through a catheterized thoracic duct (with various types intoxication, burns, liver and pancreas damage, thrombosis, peritonitis, myocardial infarction, extreme and terminal conditions) has been proven both experimentally and in the clinic.

One of the secrets of the lymphatic system has been revealed - its role in immune reactions body. There is an assumption that the lymphatic system is a morphological synonym immune system, and lymphocytes are its leading link. The presence of two independent, but jointly creating immunological reactions, T- and B-lymphocytes was discovered.

Today, lymphology is developing rapidly. Stimulation of lymphatic tissue drainage is assessed as one of the principles of pathogenetic therapy for a wide variety of (especially severe) diseases.

Lymph of a healthy person.

What is lymph?

It is believed that the aquatic environment is the basis of all processes occurring in the body, and maintaining its constancy is the basis of homeostasis. When talking about a liquid medium, we usually mean blood, which is functionally connected to all tissues and cells of the body. It provides tissues and organs with oxygen, nutritional, plastic material, promotes the removal of toxic and unnecessary metabolic products from the body, carries out neurohumoral function and thermoregulation. The protein fraction of blood is vital. Its gamma globulin fraction, for example, is necessary for the biosynthesis of antibodies and enhancing protective mechanisms. All abnormalities in the body are immediately reflected in the blood picture. Along with blood, there are equally important liquid media in our body - lymph, interstitial, cerebrospinal fluid

Lymph (translated as clean water, moisture) is a transparent liquid of a slightly yellowish color, a cloying odor and a salty taste. Some researchers call lymph only the liquid that is in the lumen of the lymphatic tract (lymphatic capillaries, vessels and sinuses of the lymph nodes).

Lymph is an interstitial fluid separated from the interstitium by a highly permeable layer of endothelium. It plays an essential role in maintaining the balance of tissue fluids.

This is where the concept of tissue lymph comes from.

A potential lymph-forming substrate is the interstitial fluid. In the ground substance, in the networks of collagen and elastic fibers, there are fixed and mobile elements of the interstitial tissue: pericytes, macrophages, fibrocytes (collagen producers), endothelial cells, lymphocytes, etc. All of them participate in certain processes that ensure the normal functioning of the microcirculation system, metabolism substances, production of vasoactive amines, mobility of interstitial substances, protective reactions of the body. The composition of lymph changes not only depending on the state of the body, but also on the functions of the organ from which it flows. The amount of lymph in the body is not precisely determined. It is believed that the lymphatic vessels of a person with a body weight of 60 kg at rest, on an empty stomach, contain 1200-1500 ml of lymph. It primarily consists of lymphocytes (there are up to 20,000 of them in the lymph of the thoracic duct in 1 mm3) - the main protective cells of the body. In a person, 35,546 billion lymphocytes enter the blood through the thoracic duct per day. Lymphoplasm is close to blood plasma, but contains less protein. There is relatively more albumin in lymph than in blood plasma, since they, having a smaller molecule, diffuse more quickly into the lymphatic capillaries. The lymph of the thoracic duct contains fibrinogen and prothrombin; it coagulates more slowly than blood, forming a loose clot consisting of fibrin strands and white blood cells. Lymph, like blood, contains all the formed elements, except platelets and red blood cells, which enter it during pathological conditions (shock, tumor growth, inflammation, etc.). In terms of mineral composition, lymph also resembles blood plasma. In first place is sodium chloride (67% solid residue), which gives the lymph a salty taste. Sodium carbonate accounts for 25%. Calcium, magnesium, and iron ions are also present in the lymph (in small quantities). The main cations of lymph are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, anions are chlorine, phosphorus and protein, which behaves like an anion in the alkaline environment of lymph. In samples of peripheral lymph, many microelements were found that have great importance

in physiology and pathology of the body. To date, the presence of a special lymphatic system has been established, which includes The lymph nodes , follicles, tonsils, spleen, thymus (thymus gland). The main functioning element of the lymphatic system is the lymphocyte. In an adult, lymphocytes circulating in the blood make up about 30% of the total number of leukocytes (in children under 5 years old - about 50%). Mature (small) lymphocytes make up the bulk of

lymphoid tissue and over 95% of lymph cells. Particular attention should be paid to the role of the thymus. It was experimentally established that as a result of removal of the thymus in a newborn animal, the lymphatic system did not develop. Such animals constantly suffered from intestinal disorders, inflammation, various infections, after a while they inevitably died. It turned out that removal of the thymus led to the almost complete disappearance of lymphocytes from the blood - cells that play a leading role in

defensive reactions

The main morphological substrate of immunogenesis is lymphoid organs. In cases where the liver, kidneys, and skin exhibit immunological activity, there are serious reasons to attribute this activity not to the specific parenchyma of these organs, but to the lymphoid or undifferentiated mesenchymal cells that have penetrated into them.

When the thymus is weak, pneumonia develops, influenza and other diseases become severe. The thymus differs from other organs of the lymphatic system nearby histological features

. The lymphoid elements that mainly make up the thymus are morphologically identical to peripheral blood lymphocytes, but differ from the latter in the nature of their response to physical, chemical, hormonal and immunological influences and to infection. The totality of lymphoid organs in the conditions of a whole organism functions as a single system. The unity of this system is ensured by two main factors: 1) general hormonal and, probably, neuroreflex regulation; 2) special functional connections between individual lymphoid organs. There is a clear specialization in the lymphoid organ system. The first, and sometimes the only object of action of the antigen and, accordingly, the antibody-producing organ are the regional lymph nodes. It has been shown that when antigens are introduced, the number of antibodies increases in regional lymph nodes, and more

early dates

The reduced (compared to blood) content of leukocytes and antibodies in the lymph, the initial distance of the lymphatic vessels from the main accumulations of lymphoid tissue, the ease of spread of infectious agents throughout the body with the flow of lymph - all this required the emergence of lymph nodes. Their appearance contributed to the protection constancy of the internal environment of the body not only due to the inherent barrier function of the lymph nodes, but also due to the fact that the body now had the opportunity to develop means of specific immunological defense (antibodies, sensitized lymphocytes) in response to a local antigenic stimulus before the infectious agent enters the bloodstream.

The place of formation of lymph, the roots of the lymphatic system are the lymphatic capillaries, which, together with post-capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and the main collector trunks, serve as lymphatic pathways. Since the functions of lymphatic vessels and the main collector lymphatic trunks consist only of conducting lymph, and the lymph nodes perform barrier, protective, exchange and reservoir functions, the structure of these sections of the lymphatic pathways differs significantly from each other.

The lymphatic system itself begins with lymphatic capillaries, which are closely connected with blood capillaries. Their diameter is several times larger than blood vessels and reaches 35 microns. The body has reserve capillaries that fill when lymph formation increases. It has been established that there are no lymphatic capillaries and vessels in the brain and spinal cord, meninges, bones, eyeball, cornea, hyaline cartilage, epidermis, and placenta. There are relatively few of them in muscles and dense connective tissue anatomical formations (ligaments, fascia, tendons). They are unevenly distributed in the glands. Lymphatic capillaries form dense networks in the subcutaneous tissue, in the walls internal organs

, serous membranes, joint capsules. The architecture of the networks of lymphatic capillaries and plexuses of lymphatic vessels corresponds to the design of organs and their functions, while the processes of lymph formation are determined primarily by the state of permeability of the walls of blood capillaries and lymphatic terminals, and the mobility of the interstitial gel. Unlike blood vessels movement in lymphatic capillaries

one-sided. Lymphatic capillaries merge and become. The larger the lymphatic vessel, the greater the distance from it are the capillaries and venules. Conversely, blood capillaries are almost closely adjacent to thin lymphatic vessels and postcapillaries. Depending on the structure of the middle membrane, lymphatic vessels are divided into two groups: non-muscular and muscular. Amuscular vessels are formed by a layer of endothelial cells, which is surrounded by a connective tissue membrane containing collagen and elastic fibers.

Most human lymphatic vessels, especially in the lower half of the body, in the lower extremities, are muscular.

The structure of the lymphatic vessels, as we see, is not the same. This variability can be observed in the structure of even the same vessel in its different sections. The valve system assumes unidirectional lymph flow. However, in pathological conditions, in the presence of an obstruction to the flow of lymph (blocking transport routes, lymph nodes) due to overstretching of blood vessels and insufficiency of valves unable to hold the “column” of lymph, as well as due to a decrease in the contractile activity of the muscular layer of the vessel wall (it is saturated with toxin transudate) the flow of lymph from an undamaged area can cause its reverse flow with the opening of lymphovenous anastomoses or the formation of lymphatic collaterals. Lymph nodes are located along the path of superficial and deep lymphatic vessels and through them they receive lymph from those tissues, organs or areas of the body in which the vessels originate. Such nodes are called regional or regional. The lymphatic system of mammals is characterized by the presence of a large number of lymph nodes: in a dog, for example, there are on average 60 nodes, and in humans - 460. Some authors consider the lymph node to be a key site of lymph flow. They contain smooth muscle elements and can contract under neurohumoral influences. There are afferent lymphatic vessels, through which lymph flows to the lymph nodes, and efferent vessels, through which lymph flows away. The number of those who bring is greater than the number of those who take out.

Lymph nodes and primary nodules lying on the paths of lymph flow not only determine the nature of lymphodynamics, but also leave a significant imprint on cellular composition here belongs to the SAF system (coagulation, anticoagulation, fibrinolysis) in the blood and lymph. By actively influencing the SAF, it is possible to control the movement of fluid from the blood into the tissues and from the tissues into the lymph, which can be important in medical practice.

What ensures the movement of lymph?

It was discovered that amphibians and reptiles have so-called lymphatic hearts - special contractile organs, the walls of which contain muscle elements. The frog has two pairs of “lymphatic hearts”, and the tailed amphibians have 15 paired lateral “lymphatic hearts” and 8-10 “lymphatic hearts” in the scapular, pelvic and other areas. In birds, “lymphatic hearts” can be observed only at the stage of embryonic development, and in mammals there are no such hearts at all. Their lymph movement occurs due to the contraction of skeletal muscles, suction ability chest, movements of large nearby arterial pulsating vessels, etc. Some authors argue that the lymph nodes of warm-blooded animals have taken over the function of the disappeared lymphatic hearts. But it’s hard to agree with this. It should be noted that more lymph flows into the node than flows out. Lymph nodes absorb lymph like a sponge, but do not give it all away; some of the lymph is retained in the node. It is more correct to assume that in warm-blooded animals the lymph nodes are additional organs of lymphopoiesis, which developed in connection with a more intense metabolism.

It is believed that the function of the disappeared lymphatic hearts was taken over by the wall of the lymphatic vessel, since only in warm-blooded animals do the lymphatic vessels acquire a characteristic clear-shaped shape with well-developed muscle fibers in the walls and a valve apparatus uniquely designed to regulate the flow of lymph. An extremely important discovery in the field of lymphodynamics was the discovery of rhythmic pulsation of the thoracic duct in humans. As you can see, lymph circulation is extremely difficult process The muscles of the lymphatic vessels require, for example, calcium ions. When they are removed, the mechanical activity of the smooth muscle cells of the lymphatic vessels immediately stops. Manganese ions have an inhibitory effect on the contraction of lymphatic vessels. Lithium and cobalt salts (in doses higher than biotic) expand the lymphatic capillaries, and salts of rubidium, selenium and partly copper (also in doses higher than biotic), increasing the rhythmic contraction of the neuromuscular apparatus of the wall of the lymphatic vessels, accelerate lymph flow.

Unlike the circulatory system, as already mentioned, the lymphatic system is characterized by a unidirectional flow. This circumstance makes it possible to quite accurately determine its initial link - the “fixed reference point”. Lymphatic capillaries should be considered such an initial point, since only their contents fully correspond to the term “lymph”. In humans, the central collector of lymph is the thoracic duct. Numerous lymphatic vessels flow into it, collecting lymph from the lower extremities, pelvis, abdomen, left half of the chest, from the heart and left lung, from the left upper limb, from the left half of the head and neck. This main lymph collector is supplemented by the right lymphatic duct, which is formed from the confluent lymphatic vessels of the right half of the head, neck, chest and right upper limb. It drains into the right venous angle. In a biological sense, the lymphatic system is considered closed (closed), but communicates with the circulatory system at the confluence of the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts.

Basic functions of the lymphatic system.

The primary task of the lymphatic system, as well as the circulatory system, is to provide all organs and tissues of the body with nutritional, energy and plastic materials and remove metabolites and toxic substances from there. Lymphatic system- this is not only transport, but also a physiologically active link; it makes its own independent, far from unambiguous contribution to the composition and state of products transported through the vessels.

It plays a particularly important role concentration, barrier, immune functions, which may be influenced by SAF factors.

Animal nutrition rich in fat food causes hypertrophy of all lymphatic tissues, especially tonsils, lymph nodes and intestinal follicles. There was an increase in the number of free macrophages with trapped fat. Fasting leads to a decrease in the number of lymphocytes, and the fat content in the nodes decreases.

Lymph nodes are also involved in protein metabolism and in the production of a number of blood proteins (including immunoglobulins).

An increase in protein concentration was noted during the passage of lymph through the lymphatic vessels, especially at low speed. The participation of lymphatic capillaries and postcapillaries in metabolism is predetermined by their orientation and location in vascular microstructures. They are located in areas of maximum filtration of liquids and substances - in the area of ​​the venular section of the capillary network and post-capillary segments of venules. Of particular interest is the study of the endothelium of lymphatic capillaries in a number of diseases when metabolic processes and the permeability of vascular membranes are disrupted. In such cases, the released protein permeates the ground substance of the connective tissue structures surrounding the capillaries. Main point , causing a number of pathological changes with increased capillary permeability - blockade of active elements connective tissue that extend beyond the vascular walls. Violation of the permeability of the walls of blood capillaries and other parts of the microvasculature entails disordered transport of fluids, shaped elements

blood passes into the tissues, and then into the lumen of the lymphatic capillaries.

Almost all lymphoid organs (with the exception of the thymus) have a barrier function - the ability to retain and, if possible, neutralize foreign particles and substances entering the organ. Due to the special structure of lymphoid organs and the phagocytic activity of their cells, most lymphoid organs retain and neutralize bacteria that have entered the lymph. The importance of the lymph nodes is especially great, they fix microorganisms even before they enter the bloodstream and are therefore a kind of “first line of defense” of the body. The barrier function of lymphoid organs, being a nonspecific factor of immunity, is at the same time a necessary prerequisite for the formation of a specific immunological reaction of a given organ and the entire organism as a whole. The lymph nodes also absorb other foreign substances. Some of them (ink, thorium, oily foods direct rinsing nodes Numerous facts show that lymph nodes play the role of a biological rather than a mechanical filter. However, in cases where the cellular and humoral resources of a given organ and the entire organism as a whole are insufficient to neutralize the pathogenic factor, the barrier function turns into an unfavorable side: the lymphoid organ becomes a reservoir, a focus real danger. Let's take for example chronic tonsillitis, foci of infection in the lymph nodes in tuberculosis, brucellosis, metastasis to regional nodes of tumor cells, etc.

The endothelium of lymphatic capillaries is extremely sensitive to mechanical, chemical, temperature and other influences and responds to them by changing permeability. Endothelial cells are capable of adsorbing protein particles, lipids and other substances. This property of cells is very important, as it is aimed at ensuring the absorption of liquid with toxins dissolved in it, as well as the absorption of foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses.

The formation of lymphocytes occurs in the tissue of the nodes.

They enter the lymph flow, and then through the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts into the blood. The number of lymphocytes in the lymph flowing from the lymph node is greater than in the incoming one.

Lymph and the body's immune system.

It has long been known that the body’s protective function largely depends on the lymphatic system. This question was first developed by the outstanding Russian scientist I.I. Mechnikov. He explained immunity by the phenomenon of intracellular digestion of microbes and called this process phagocytosis. Subsequently, humoral factors of immunity were identified, which primarily include antibodies. The active participation of lymphoid organs has also been established in the implementation of humoral immunity factors. It has now been established that phagocytosis (the main nonspecific factor) and antibodies (the main specific factors of immunity) act together and form the basis of immunological resistance. The central figure of the immune system is the lymphocyte, and the substrate for the formation of specific immunological reactions is lymphoid tissue. The totality of human lymphoid organs and tissues is the thymus gland (thymus), spleen, lymph nodes, group lymphatic follicles and other lymphoid accumulations, bone marrow and peripheral blood lymphocytes. The leading function of lymphoid organs is

The bulk of lymphocytes are formed in the lymph nodes and lymphatic follicles of the digestive tract. In addition, they can be produced in the spleen, thymus and bone marrow.

The nature and degree of participation of various lymphoid organs in immunological processes varies. Some lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen) are a direct substrate of the process of immunogenesis, others (thymus gland, bursa of Fabricius) participate in them indirectly, regulating the immunoreactivity of the lymph nodes and spleen.

Lymphoid cells are capable of performing their characteristic immunological function autonomously, sometimes even against other cells of the organism in which they are located. At the same time, the level of their immunoreactivity is regulated by hormonal and, possibly, reflex mechanisms.

A number of studies have shown the ability of large lymphocytes and cells of germinal centers of lymphoid tissue to produce antibodies, normal gammaglobulins, and macroglobulins. The question of the ability of small lymphocytes to produce antibodies remains controversial. It is believed that the main precursors of cells that synthesize antibodies are immature cells of lymphoid tissue: hematocytoblasts and lymphoblasts (large lymphocytes). It is unclear, however, whether these cells are the target of the antigen or an intermediate link in the chain of cellular transformations. Large lymphocytes store immunological information (memory) about a previous antigenic stimulus for at least 600 cell generations.

Lymphoid organs after primary immunization acquire a specifically increased reactivity to this antigen. The expression of this altered immunoreactivity is, firstly, the ability to respond to smaller doses of antigen and, secondly, more rapid and vigorous formation of antibodies (revaccination effect). Increased immunoreactivity as a result of previous exposure to antigen is a major factor allergic reactions slow type. Immunological memory lymphoid cells- an essential factor in the body’s anti-infective defense.

Recent work has shown the very important role of the thymus gland not only in immunity, but also in the formation of the lymphoid system.

This gland is actually the first central lymphoid organ, where T-lymphocytes mainly mature. This type of lymphocyte constantly undergoes training in the thymus gland and learns the ability to separate “us” from “stranger.” After this, killers (“killers”) and helpers (“helpers”) respectively perform their functions. In addition, the thymus releases hormone-like substances into the blood that promote the maturation of T-lymphocytes. It supplies other lymphoid organs with lymphocytes, especially in the early postembryonic period. The thymus and spleen are a kind of peripheral lymph nodes that take an active part in the neurohumoral regulation of the lymphatic system. Removal of the thymus in newborn animals causes persistent pathological changes, among which the leading factor is

systemic hypoplasia

lymphoid tissue. Spleen cells, like cells of lymphoid nodes, are characterized by immunological memory - the ability to respond to repeated injection of antigen with faster and more intense production of antibodies. In addition to antibodies, the spleen also produces lymphocytes or lymphocyte-like cells, which migrate to other organs and there become cells that produce antibodies. The body's resistance to infections and other pathogenic factors depends not only on the ability to develop a highly specialized immune response, but also on numerous so-called nonspecific defense reactions of the body. Such reactions include, for example, the impermeability of normal skin and mucous membranes to a wide variety of microorganisms and the presence of bactericidal substances in skin secretions, gastric juice, in blood and other body fluids (saliva, tears, etc.). Specific and

nonspecific factors

defenses work together.

The importance of the lymphatic system is not limited to what has been said. The development of the study of lymph helps to identify its new functions. Factors affecting lymph and lymph flow. The regulation of lymph flow plays an important role in the own activity of lymphatic vessels. Internal factors are inherent in the lymphatic system itself. The concept of the internal forces of lymph flow includes lymph formation and contractile activity of lymphatic vessels and nodes. The power of lymph formation is the initial volume of lymph, without which lymph flow is impossible.

In the transport of lymph, one should also take into account the viscosity of the lymph flowing from the periphery, which can change if lymph formation is disrupted, the tone of the lymphatic valves, external pressure on the wall of the lymphatic vessel from muscular contractions of the organ and adjacent blood vessels, as well as values ​​characterizing the mechanical properties of the wall of the lymphatic vessel - thickness and radius of lymphangions, elastic properties of its wall. The intensity of lymph formation correlates with the intensity of blood circulation.

Previously it was believed that external factors(respiratory movements of the lungs, rhythmic changes in the volume of the intestines, spleen, pulsation of the walls of blood vessels and contractions of skeletal muscles) are decisive in the movement of lymph. Proof of this was the almost complete cessation of lymph flow from the immobilized limb. Subsequently, the appearance of edema was established after prolonged immobilization of the limb (in the experiment) and along with dilatation of the lymphatic vessels - dystrophic changes their walls. This indicates a violation of the trophism of the lymphatic vessels.

The noted changes in the lymphatic vessels did not appear immediately, but after several weeks and even months. It has been noted, however, that during catheterization of the lymphatic vessel of the lower limb in anesthetized animals, lymph does not flow out. Many different mechanisms and factors are involved in the regulation of lymph movement, which is determined by the need to ensure the reliability of the functions performed by the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes have their own contractile activity, similar to lymphatic vessels.

Among the factors of lymph flow, the most significant after the own contractile activity of the lymphatic vessels are passive and active muscle movements, peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract, pulsation of arteries and veins. The factors of lymph flow also include the influence of the frequency and strength of heart contractions on lymph flow.

The lymph flow in the thoracic duct (the main collector of the vascular network of the lymphatic system) is affected by many constant factors (their own contractile activity of the lymphatic vessels, breathing, blood pressure, aortic pulsation), the intensity of which can determine or contribute to the movement of lymph. Temporary factors (contractions of skeletal muscles, activity of the digestive system) can also largely determine the volume of lymph entering the venous system.

High sensitivity of lymphatic vessels to thermal factors was noted. It has been proven that hypothermia reduces the tone of lymphatic vessels by two and a half times.

Hypokinesia has a particularly negative effect on lymph flow. Massage helps enhance the transport function of lymph. Dosed stimulation of lymph flow through passive movements of the injured limb with a certain frequency, duration and periodicity significantly reduces the toxicity of peripheral lymph. The lymphatic system is a part of the cardiovascular system that complements it. She performs essential functions in the human body, and its health is extremely important for its normal life . Lymph differs from blood in that it does not flow through vicious circle

. Its movement is very slow, so it needs to be stimulated.

Interesting fact! In ancient times, the lymphatic system was considered the main factor determining human temperament. Temperament, in turn, determined the groups of diseases to which a person was susceptible.

What is the lymphatic system?

• As reported, anatomy permeates the entire body. It includes:
• capillaries;
• vessels;
• nodes;
• lymphatic ducts and trunks;

lymphatic organs.

Liquid connective tissue flows through them - lymph, the main composition of which is water, salts, proteins, fats. Its composition is close to the blood plasma that nourishes the body. Lymph is colorless. The human body contains from 1 to 2 liters.

How does lymph formation occur? Lymph formation occurs in the following way. IN blood plasma is filtered. The liquid remaining as a result of this filtration is transported into the intercellular space. In this way, tissue fluid is formed, part of which returns to the blood, and the other part passes into the lymphatic capillaries. Its movement largely depends on muscle contraction, the position of the person’s body and his breathing.

This is how complex it is - human anatomy. The lymphatic system and its structure are thought out by nature to the smallest detail. Let's consider this component human body in details.

Structure of the lymphatic system

Lymphatic capillaries are small tubes of different diameters, lacking a membrane, which begin blindly. They form connections by intertwining with each other, passing into postcapillaries, which are larger structures containing valves. These valves push lymph in one direction, preventing it from flowing back.

Attention! The word “lymph circulation” is incorrect, because lymph is a product of the endothelium and interendothelial layers, each time being renewed in the body. Doctors call this process lymphatic drainage.

According to the section of biology called "human anatomy", the lymphatic system also consists of vessels that are formed from post-capillaries. The largest of them follow the path of veins and arteries and are called collectors. They collect lymph from the largest sources - upper and lower limbs, organs. They are divided into internal (located near blood vessels) and external (located in subcutaneous tissue). Vessels are also divided into afferent and efferent (depending on the flow of lymph in relation to the lymph nodes).

From the collectors, lymphatic trunks are formed, which are transformed into ducts.

The lymph nodes

The human lymphatic system (anatomy for a long time did not pay due attention to this component of our body) also has its “cleaners”. Lymph nodes are small, round or oval shape, whose diameter is about 2 cm. They have a pinkish-gray tint. They are located along the lymphatic vessels. In young people, oval-shaped lymph nodes predominate, while in older people they are elongated. Their main function is to cleanse the lymph from toxic substances that enter there. Lymph nodes play the role of a kind of filter that captures toxins and “releases” already purified lymph.

The lymphatic organs are the spleen, tonsils and thymus (which develops to adolescence). Their main functions are to prevent infection from entering and developing in the body.

What functions does the lymphatic system perform in the body?

One of the most complex and confusing sciences is human anatomy. The lymphatic system, whose functions are very important for the body, performs a huge job.

First of all, it is responsible for the body’s immune response, protecting it from bacteria and viruses. That is why, in response to the penetration of a pathogen (infection, virus) into the body, the lymph nodes enlarge. It is their increase in children that indicates the presence of, say, tuberculosis, although, in addition to this, lymph nodes enlarge in many other diseases. Protective function consists of two stages:

• destruction of bacteria using macrophages;
• production of lymphocytes.

Blood filtration. The spleen destroys red blood cells and kills all bacteria and viruses that it finds in the blood. Produces young red blood cells Bone marrow.

Lymph filtration. If there are any in the blood pathogenic microorganisms, then the lymph nodes filter them out. It is for this reason that when cancer is suspected, doctors first check the lymph nodes for the presence of metastases. The human lymphatic system (anatomy is briefly discussed) in this case indicates how much the disease has spread throughout the body.

The flow of fluid from tissue into the blood. The plasma contained in the blood seeps through the walls of blood vessels into other tissues. It is cleared and returned to the blood again. This circulation is continuous.

Diseases of the lymphatic system

According to human anatomy, the lymphatic system is extremely important for the health of the body, and disruptions in its functioning can cause serious complications.

Among the groups of diseases of the lymphatic system are:

• developmental defects;
• injuries;
• inflammation;
• tumors.

One of the first symptoms of these diseases is enlarged lymph nodes and a noticeable decrease in immunity. Sweating and fatigue increase, patients suffer from headaches, and the temperature may rise. Lymph diseases appear are especially dangerous because toxins begin to accumulate in the body. That is, disruption of its activity affects all organs and systems of the body.

Treatment methods for pathologies of the lymphatic system directly depend on the type of disease. Treatment can be different - from conservative to radiation or surgical methods.

We hope that people who are interested in human anatomy, the lymphatic system (photos demonstrating how complex this component of our body is presented in the article) and its functions have learned a lot of new and interesting things about this environment of the body. How to keep her healthy?

Lymphatic Health

First of all, doctors recommend monitoring your health and preventing disturbances in the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, as this entails contamination of the entire body and interferes with the functioning of the lymphatic system. She can no longer cope with the flow of toxins. Watch your diet.

Get a massage twice a year. This procedure effectively disperses the lymph, but it is especially effective if it acts directly on the lymph. If it is not possible to visit a massage therapist, in the shower, rub your body with a washcloth along the lymph flow.

Control your weight. Lymph is very sensitive to extra pounds. Lead active image life and be healthy!

The human lymphatic system (LS) is one of the structures that unites disparate organs into a whole. Its smallest branches - capillaries - penetrate most tissues. The biological fluid flowing through the system - lymph - largely determines the vital activity of the body. In ancient times, drugs were considered as one of the main factors determining human temperament. According to many doctors of that time, temperament directly determined both diseases and methods of treating them.

Structure of the lymphatic system

Structural components of the drug:

• lymphatic capillaries and vessels;
• The lymph nodes;
• lymph.

The structure of lymphatic capillaries and vessels

The structure of the drug resembles tree roots, just like the circulatory and nervous system. Its vessels are located in all organs and tissues, except the brain and spinal cord and its shells, inner fabric(parenchyma) of the spleen, inner ear, sclera, lens, cartilaginous, epithelial tissue and placenta.
Lymph is collected from tissues into blind-ending capillaries. Their diameter is significantly larger than that of the capillaries of the microvasculature. Their walls are thin and highly permeable to liquid and substances dissolved in it, as well as to some cells and microorganisms.
Capillaries drain into lymphatic vessels. These vessels have thin walls equipped with valves. The valves prevent the reverse (retrograde) flow of lymph from the vessels into the tissues. Lymphatic vessels entwine all organs in a wide network. Often such networks in organs are represented by several layers.
Through the vessels, lymph slowly flows into groups of regional lymph nodes. Such groups are located at “busy intersections” of the body: in the armpits, in the elbows, groin, on the mesentery, in the chest cavity, and so on. Large trunks emerging from the lymph nodes flow into the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts. These ducts then open into large veins. Thus, the fluid removed from the tissues enters the bloodstream.

The structure of the lymph node

Lymph nodes are not only the “link” of drugs. They perform important biological functions determined by the peculiarities of their structure.
Lymph nodes consist mainly of lymphoid tissue. It is represented by lymphocytes, plasma cells and reticulocytes. In the lymph nodes, important participants in immune processes—B-lymphocytes—develop and “mature.” Transforming into plasma cells, they mediate reactions humoral immunity by producing antibodies.
T-lymphocytes are also present deep in the lymph nodes. There they undergo differentiation caused by contact with the antigen. Therefore, lymph nodes participate in the formation of cellular immunity.

Composition of lymph

Lymph refers to human connective tissue. This is a liquid substance containing lymphocytes. It is based on tissue fluid containing water and salts and other substances dissolved in it. Lymph also contains colloidal solutions of proteins, which give it viscosity. This biological fluid is rich in fats. Its composition is close to blood plasma.
The human body contains from 1 to 2 liters of lymph. It flows through the vessels due to the pressure of the newly formed lymphatic fluid and as a result of the contraction of muscle cells in the walls of the lymphatic vessels. Important role the movement of lymph plays a role in the contraction of surrounding muscles, as well as the position of the human body and the phases of breathing.

Functions of the lymphatic system

After considering the basic structure of a drug, its various functions become clearer:

• drainage;
• cleansing;
• transport;
• immune;
• homeostatic.

The drainage function of drugs is to remove excess water, as well as proteins, fats and salts from tissues. These substances are then returned to the bloodstream.
The drug removes many metabolic products and toxins from tissues, as well as many pathogens that have entered the body. Barrier role Lymph nodes act as unique filters for fluid flowing from tissues. Lymph cleanses tissues of cell breakdown products and microbes.
The drug transports immune cells throughout the body. It is involved in the transport of certain enzymes, such as lipases and others. important substances. Unfortunately, metastasis malignant neoplasms is also associated with the performance of transport functions by drugs.
Lymph nodes are the most important participants in immune processes, ensuring the development of T- and B-lymphocytes. In this regard, mention should be made of small lymph nodes located in the intestinal wall (Peyer's patches) and areas of lymphoid tissue in the tonsils of the pharyngeal ring.
Participating in all of the listed processes, the drug performs its integrating, homeostatic function, ensuring the unchanged internal environment of the body.

Content

The lymphatic system performs the functions of cleansing tissues and cells from foreign agents in the body ( foreign bodies), protection from toxic substances. Included in circulatory system, but differs from it in structure and is considered as an independent structural and functional unit, having its own network of vessels and organs. main feature The lymph system consists of its open structure.

What is the lymphatic system

A complex of specialized vessels, organs, and structural elements is called the lymphatic system. Essential elements:

1. Capillaries, trunks, vessels through which fluid (lymph) moves. The main difference from blood vessels is the large number of valves that allow fluid to disperse in all directions.
2. Nodes are single or organized in groups formations that act as lymph filters. They retain harmful substances and process microbial and viral particles and antibodies through phagocytosis.
3. The central organs are the thymus, spleen, red bone marrow, in which specific immune blood cells - lymphocytes - are formed, mature and “trained”.
4. Separate accumulations of lymphoid tissue are adenoids.

Functions

The human lymphatic system performs a number of important tasks:

1. Ensuring the circulation of tissue fluid, along with which toxic substances and metabolites leave the tissue.
2. Transport of fats, fatty acids from small intestine, which ensures rapid delivery of nutrients to organs and tissues.
3. Protective blood filtration function.
4. Immune function: production large quantity lymphocytes.

Structure

The lymphatic system has the following structural elements: lymphatic vessels, nodes and lymph itself. Conventionally, in anatomy, the organs of the lymphatic system include some parts of the immune system, which ensure the constant composition of human lymph and the disposal of harmful substances. According to some studies, the lymphatic system in women has a larger network of vessels, and in men there is an increased number of lymph nodes. We can conclude that the lymphatic system, due to the peculiarities of its structure, helps the functioning of the immune system.

Scheme

The flow of lymph and the structure of the human lymphatic system obey a certain pattern, which provides the lymph with the opportunity to flow from the interstitial space to the nodes. The basic rule of lymph flow is the movement of fluid from the periphery to the center, while passing through filtration in several stages through local nodes. Moving away from the nodes, the vessels form trunks called ducts.

From the left upper limb, neck, left lobe of the head, organs below the ribs, flowing into the left subclavian vein, the lymph flow forms the thoracic duct. Passing through the right upper quarter of the body, including the head and chest, bypassing the right subclavian vein, the lymph flow forms the right duct. This separation helps not to overload the vessels and nodes; lymph circulates freely from the interstitial space into the blood. Any blockage of the duct threatens edema or tissue swelling.

Lymph movement

The speed and direction of lymph movement during normal functioning are constant. The movement begins from the moment of synthesis in the lymphatic capillaries. With the help of the contractile element of the walls of blood vessels and valves, the liquid is collected and moves to a certain group of nodes, filtered, then, purified, it is poured into large veins. Thanks to this organization, the functions of the lymphatic system are not limited to the circulation of interstitial fluid, and it can work as a tool of the immune system.

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Diseases of the lymphatic system

The most common diseases are lymphadenitis - tissue inflammation due to the accumulation of large amounts of lymph fluid, in which the concentration of harmful microbes and their metabolites is very high. Often, the pathology takes the form of an abscess. The mechanisms of lymphadenitis can be triggered by:

• tumors, both malignant and benign;
• long-term compartment syndrome;
• injuries affecting directly the lymphatic vessels;
• bacterial systemic diseases;
• destruction of red blood cells

Diseases of the lymphatic system include local infectious lesions organs: tonsillitis, inflammation of individual lymph nodes, tissue lymphangitis. Such problems arise due to the failure of the human immune system and excessive infectious load. Traditional methods Treatments involve various methods of cleaning nodes and blood vessels.

How to cleanse the lymphatic system

The lymphatic system serves as a “filter” for the human body; many pathogenic substances accumulate in it. The body copes with the function of cleaning lymphatic vessels and nodes on its own. However, if symptoms of incompetence of the lymphatic and immune systems appear (hardening of nodes, frequent colds) It is recommended, for preventive purposes, to carry out cleansing measures on your own. You can ask your doctor how to cleanse the lymph and lymphatic system.

1. A diet consisting of plenty of clean water, raw vegetables and boiled buckwheat without salt. It is recommended to follow this diet for 5-7 days.
2. Lymphatic drainage massage, which will eliminate lymph stagnation and “stretch” the blood vessels, improving their tone. Use with caution when varicose veins veins
3. Taking herbal medicines and herbs. Oak bark and hawthorn fruits will enhance lymph flow, and the diuretic effect will help eliminate toxins.

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Attention! The information presented in the article is for informational purposes only. The materials of the article do not call for self-treatment. Only a qualified doctor can make a diagnosis and give treatment recommendations based on individual characteristics specific patient.

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The lymphatic system differs from the circulatory system in that it is not closed in a circle; lymphatic capillaries begin blindly; there is no basement membrane in the wall of lymphatic capillaries; Along the lymphatic vessels there are lymph nodes. Functions of the lymphatic system: participates in hematopoiesis, fat and carbohydrate metabolism, barrier function, provides tissue drainage, and the spread of metastases (malignant tumors) through the lymphatic tract.

Components of the lymphatic system.

The lymphatic system includes: 1) lymphatic capillaries, which perform the function of absorbing colloidal solutions of proteins from tissues, carry out tissue drainage together with veins - absorption of water and substances dissolved in it, remove foreign particles (destroyed cells, microorganisms) from tissues. 2) lymphatic vessels (have internal, middle and outer shell), they carry out the outflow of lymph from the capillaries to large lymphatic collectors. 3) lymphatic collectors through which lymph flows into the veins. 4) lymph nodes located along the lymphatic vessels (perform a barrier-filtration function). 5) lymphoepithelial organs: spleen, tonsils, lymphoid nodules of the digestive tube, appendix.

Main lymphatic collectors.

All draining lymphatic vessels collect lymph into the right and left (thoracic) lymphatic ducts. The thoracic duct lies on the posterior wall abdominal cavity. It is formed by the fusion of the right and left lumbar lymphatic trunks (collecting lymph from the lower extremities) and the intestinal lymphatic trunk (collecting lymph from the abdominal organs). In the area of ​​confluence of these trunks there is an expansion (cistern). The thoracic duct flows into the left venous angle - the confluence of the left internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The left bronchomediastinal lymphatic trunk (collects lymph from the organs of the left half of the chest cavity), the left subclavian trunk (collects lymph from the left upper limb) and the left jugular trunk (collects lymph from the left half of the head and neck) flow into the mouth of the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains into the right venous angle (the confluence of the right internal jugular and right subclavian veins).

Organs of the lymphatic system.

The lymphatic system includes the spleen, located in the left hypochondrium. It is covered with peritoneum on all sides (intraperitoneal). The spleen has a fibrous capsule from which septa extend into the organ. Between the latter is the red pulp of the spleen, inside which there are accumulations of lymphoid tissue (spleen follicles). The spleen absorbs some from the blood harmful substances. It destroys red blood cells.

L lymph nodes are organs of the lymphatic system. They lie along the path of the lymphatic vessels. These are bean-shaped, oval, round and elongated organs. Lymph nodes are usually located in groups. There are the following types of lymph nodes: superficial and deep (located on the limbs), parietal and visceral (collect lymph from the walls and organs of body cavities)

The lymphatic system also includes lymphoid organs (single lymph nodes, Peyer's patches of the ileal wall) and tonsils.

Immune system organs

The organs of the lymphatic and immune systems are closely related to each other by their common origin, structure and function. The immune system unites organs and tissues that protect the body from genetically foreign cells or substances coming from outside or formed in the body. The organs of the immune system produce immunocompetent cells - lymphocytes, include them in the immune process, recognize and destroy cells that have entered the body or formed in it. When foreign substances - antigens - enter the body, protective substances that neutralize them - antibodies (immunoglobulins) - are formed. The organs of the immune system are represented by central organs - bone marrow, thymus gland (thymus), and peripheral organs - tonsils, lymphoid nodules of the digestive, respiratory and genitourinary systems, lymph nodes, spleen.

Features of the structure of the immune system:

The parenchyma of all organs of the immune system is lymphoid tissue.

Early formation of immune system organs in embryogenesis.

By the time of birth, the organs of the immune system are morphologically formed and are functionally mature.

The organs of the immune system reach their maximum development in childhood and adolescence.

They undergo relatively early age-related involution.

IMMUNITY

For the first time, the phenomenon of phagocytosis of various microorganisms by leukocytes and their digestion was described by I.I. Mechnikov, initiating the study protective properties blood. For these studies he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1908. But in addition to the phagocytic function, leukocytes are capable of forming antibodies in response to the penetration of pathogens into the body. The body's immunity to various types of diseases is called immunity. Immunity can be natural, if it is developed by the body itself without external intervention, or artificial. If natural immunity manifests itself in a person from birth, i.e. inherited from the mother to the child, this is called innate immunity. And when immunity is developed by a person after any illness, then it is acquired immunity.

Artificial immunity can be active or passive. Active immunity is developed when a vaccine is introduced into the body, i.e. weakened live or killed infectious agents. This vaccine causes the disease in a very mild form and the person becomes immune for quite a long time to the disease against which it is made, because Specific antibodies have formed in the body.

Passive immunity is created by introducing into the body during an illness immune serum from the blood of animals or humans, which contains ready-made antibodies against the disease. Passive immunity lasts 4-6 weeks, and then the antibodies are destroyed and immunity disappears.

So in 1796, Edward Jenner proposed vaccinations against smallpox. In 1880, L. Pasteur proposed a scientific method for producing vaccines for preventive vaccinations. In 1883 I.I. Mechnikov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis. In 1892 DI. Ivanovsky discovered viruses. At the end of the 9th century, E. Bering discovered antitoxins and the medicinal properties of antitoxic serums, which he obtained by injecting animals with bacterial cultures and toxins, etc.

The fight against infectious diseases consists of preventive and anti-epidemic measures. This includes sanitary and epidemiological surveillance and protection of the territory, identification and treatment of patients and carriers of infections, routine vaccinations of the population (immunization) against polio, diphtheria, whooping cough, smallpox, and measles.

AIDS AND THE FIGHT AGAINST IT

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease that affects the immune system and is characterized by the development of secondary immune deficiency. The causative agent of AIDS was isolated and described in 1983. first in France and then in the USA. It turned out to be a virus that selectively infects blood lymphocytes involved in the development of the body's immunity against pathogens of infectious diseases and the occurrence of malignant tumors. On the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO), the AIDS virus received the designation HIV - human immunodeficiency virus.

Due to the fact that the AIDS virus causes the destruction of human lymphocytes, the body’s defense against microbes is sharply reduced and this leads to the occurrence of inflammatory diseases of various organs and organ systems, even due to microbes that usually never cause diseases in humans. AIDS patients also have a decreased resistance to tumors. The development of inflammatory phenomena and malignant tumors is the cause of death in AIDS patients.

The disease is transmitted from a sick person to a healthy person primarily through sexual contact, as well as through the use of non-neutralized medical instruments (most often syringes for drug addicts) and through the transfusion of contaminated blood. Early signs of the disease may include prolonged fever and prolonged enlargement of the lymph nodes. Later ones include chronic inflammatory lesions of the skin, oral mucosa, and genital organs. The manifestation of the disease can also be pneumonia, long-term disorders of the gastrointestinal tract without visible reasons etc. If you have such signs, you should consult a doctor.

And since the likelihood of contracting AIDS depends primarily on a person’s behavior, you need to think about whether it is worth dying because of recklessness, frivolity and ignorance.