Ophthalmologist (ophthalmologist, eye doctor). What kind of doctor is this and what does he treat? When should you contact an ophthalmologist? Who is an ophthalmologist and what does he treat?

The development of mankind, technological progress, scientific discoveries - all this together has given people many inventions and technologies that greatly simplify our lives. However, everything that happens has back side, not always good. It’s the same here: along with an increase in living standards, there also come problems that relate mainly to the environment and our health.

Nowadays, they have gained unprecedented popularity personal computers, laptops, mobile phones, tablets and many other gadgets. A very large part of my life modern man spends staring at the screens of small devices, which puts serious strain on the eyes. In turn, this can lead to various diseases. Almost every second resident of developed cities has eye problems. This forces you to seek help from an ophthalmologist.

Specialization - ophthalmology

Ophthalmologist - who is this? A doctor who diagnoses, treats and corrects vision. This is a narrow direction in medicine, the main subject of study of which is human eye. This specialist knows everything about how the eye works, how it functions and receives images of the surrounding world. To put it more in simple language, an ophthalmologist is an ophthalmologist (from the old name for the eye - eye) or quite simply - an eye doctor, an ophthalmologist.

It is extremely difficult to underestimate the role of the eyes in life. It is through the visual channel that a person receives most of the information (about 70%). Thanks to vision, we can move freely, observe, read and write, drive a car and perform a wide variety of activities. And although our vision is imperfect compared to some other representatives of our planet, its importance is very great. Therefore, maintaining the health of our eyes is a significant task for everyone. And if any suspicions arise, an ophthalmologist can check your vision and identify problems early stages when it's not too late to do something.

Major eye problems

The human eye is one of the most fragile and vulnerable organs. First of all, he is overly sensitive to physical influences. It can be easily damaged even with a slight force, this should be remembered. In addition, the eyes are susceptible to many different diseases.

The most common are nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hypermetropia), astigmatism, cataracts and glaucoma. And the list of all possible diseases is very long: these are various pathologies of the eyelids, sclera, conjunctiva, cornea and other parts of the visual apparatus. It is not necessary to know what an ophthalmologist treats, but if you have any problems, it would be better to make an appointment right away.

Prerequisites for the development of eye diseases

As with any disease, eye diseases have certain factors that can increase the risk of their occurrence. First of all, this may be a type of activity associated with increased eye strain. This is especially true for those professions where you need to work a lot with very small objects at a short distance from your eyes. These are, for example, jewelers, microchip repairmen and many others. Also, people who work a lot with a computer, often use small mobile devices, read on the move or in poor light - all of them risk being seen by an ophthalmologist prematurely. Other risk factors may be natural conditions(constant heat or strong wind), pollution environment and so on.

In addition to all of the above, vision and eye health can be greatly influenced by the health of other organs and the body as a whole. For example, the eyes can suffer greatly in patients with diabetes mellitus and people with problems of the cardiovascular system. This happens because the eyes need a high-quality supply of nutrients and oxygen, and if blood circulation is impaired, this process becomes difficult. Blood clots can also seriously harm eye health.

Treatment options

An ophthalmologist deals with the treatment and diagnosis of eye diseases. We already know who it is. But how does everything happen and what technologies are used currently? Medical equipment has made a huge leap forward and the field of ophthalmology is no exception.
There are many the latest developments in the field of diagnostic equipment, which often even has a somewhat intimidating appearance. Despite everything, an ophthalmologist is, no matter what anyone thinks, one of the most “painless” doctors.

Most of all examinations are non-contact, meaning the patient experiences a minimum of unpleasant emotions. And even when physical contact with the eye is still required (for example, to take a tissue sample), the doctor carries out the procedures very carefully, trying to avoid any unnecessary influences.

For the most part, vision diagnostics consists of measuring the refraction of the lens, studying the condition of the fundus and retina, and measuring visual acuity. These procedures do not pose any discomfort to the subject. Therefore, you should not delay going to the eye doctor.

Vision correction without intervention

When minor visual impairments are detected, modern ophthalmology offers several methods of correction and treatment. Treatment consists of returning the patient to the original levels of visual acuity if they have been impaired. A set of measures is used: the use of medications, procedures with special equipment, gymnastics and eye exercises. If treatment is started in a timely manner, very good results can be achieved.

In cases where there are already noticeable difficulties in visual perception, additional means of correction are used. The most common are glasses and contact lenses. The ophthalmologist selects them for each patient individually, taking into account current indicators, as well as medical indications. Glasses are suitable for almost everyone, but they are less comfortable than contact lenses. The latter, in turn, have several contraindications. For example, the use of lenses is not recommended if the cornea or iris is damaged, or if the eyes are irritated or dry. Although in cases of severe visual impairment (over +6 or -6 diopters), lenses are more preferable for correction.

Surgical correction

Application decision operational methods Corrections are made mainly by an ophthalmologist. Who can do this besides him? Sometimes required additional consultations with other doctors. This is especially true for certain contraindications.

There are two main types possible surgical intervention: classical surgery and various types of laser surgeries. The first case is often used for cupping acute attacks Glaucoma, when an incision is made in the body of the eye through which fluid comes out. Thus, it decreases intraocular pressure. But this type of surgery is practically not used to treat myopia, farsightedness or astigmatism. In these cases, ophthalmology recommends laser correction. There are several types, but the most common are PRK (photorefractive keratectomy) and LASIK. The technologies have certain differences, but they have one thing in common: they are quick and almost painless ways to correct farsightedness and myopia (from -13 to +10 diopters), as well as many types of astigmatism. In most cases, they allow you to return visual acuity values ​​close to 100% and with minimal risk regression.

Orthoptics, orthoptist

Now we know who an ophthalmologist is. He specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases. But few know about the existence of another specialization. Ophthalmologist-orthoptist - who is he and what does he specialize in? This is a specially trained specialist who works in the field of correction of vision defects. He deals with adaptation and improvement of the functioning of the eye muscles, as well as diagnosis and prevention using special equipment. The most common problem with which people turn to an orthoptist is strabismus. If the patient gets to such a doctor in a timely manner, then there is every chance of correcting the defects only with the help of exercises and special procedures.

Self-diagnosis of vision

Vision or eye problems can be detected early. You just need to be a little more attentive to yourself. When you look in the mirror, look a little closer at your eyes. Is there any cloudiness, excessive redness or irritation, dots or spots. If it has become more difficult for you to focus your vision on close objects (for example, when reading) or distant objects have begun to blur slightly, then there is a reason to go to the doctor. Ophthalmologist - who? This is an ophthalmologist, he will conduct an examination to identify the defect, and then, if necessary, prescribe a course of treatment. In some cases, it will be enough to simply follow some recommendations for preserving vision (they will be discussed below) and the problem will go away by itself.

The main thing is not to delay, because it’s better not to joke with your health.

Prevention of eye diseases

If a profession or activity falls into a risk category, this risk must be minimized. First, don't overstrain your eyes. Be sure to take a break for at least 5-10 minutes per hour, during this time do not read or look at anything. mobile phone. Let your eyes rest.

You can do gymnastics, even basic exercises will help your eyes become toned. These are eye movements left-right, up-down, diagonally and in a circle. Each is repeated 5-6 times, and during breaks, blink quickly for 7-10 seconds. It has been found that blinking is an excellent way to relax all eye muscles.

Second, eat healthy vegetables and berries. Blueberries are especially good; they are even used in many medications, dietary supplements and vitamin complexes for eyes. Try to limit alcohol consumption and smoking - these two habits have a detrimental effect on the visual system.

It would be a good idea to get checked by an ophthalmologist at least once a year.

Conclusion: ophthalmologist - who is he?

We tried to consider the main areas of activity of ophthalmology, the most common problems associated with vision. It turned out that an ophthalmologist is an ophthalmologist, it’s just that different names one profession. It is worth adding that very encouraging trends are observed in this medical industry. Surgeries are already being carried out to implant the lens and cornea, which literally returns sight to almost blind people. Developments are underway in the field of creating artificial eye, which in the near future will make it possible to correct even incurable congenital blindness, as well as help those who have lost their eyes for other reasons. It is safe to say that ophthalmology keeps up with the times and is able to solve most problems associated with the treatment of eye diseases.

Modern medicine does not stand still, realizing innovative discoveries and introducing new terminology. A special “medical” language is formed, which for a simple patient resembles a puzzle. Thus, few ordinary people know that an audiologist is the same as an ENT specialist, but specializing in diseases of the hearing organs, and the frightening procedure of otoscopy is just a routine examination of the ear.

Is an ophthalmologist an ophthalmologist?

Many people have had to wonder: what is an ophthalmologist? The only thing that could come to mind is that there is eye clinics which was founded by ophthalmologist Fedorov. But this does not answer our question in any way... Having found out that this is a specialist in diseases of the organs of vision, a new question arises: is an ophthalmologist an ophthalmologist or not, if not, then how does he differ from an ophthalmologist? Opinions on this matter vary. One category of people believes that an ophthalmologist is a specialist with a broader profile and carries out some of the manipulations that are not allowed to a simple ophthalmologist. The other part is convinced that an ophthalmologist is only an operating doctor, and the ophthalmologist deals with the direct treatment and prevention of eye diseases. In fact, both versions are wrong. Oculist and ophthalmologist are synonymous words, translated from ancient Greek and Latin meaning “eye”. In other words, the essence of these terms is identical.

Medical documentation will help to completely dispel doubts about the difference between an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist. Even 30 years ago in staffing table medical institutions a specialist with the position of ophthalmologist was present. Since 1981, the position of a doctor dealing with diseases of the organs of vision has been abolished. In its place, a single specialty was introduced - ophthalmologist. The primary name has not gone away from everyday use, and is often used by the older generation of people.

What does an ophthalmologist treat?

The scope of activity of an ophthalmologist is wide and includes all diseases of the eyes and tissues affecting them. The main organs that are diagnosed and treated by a doctor of this specialization are: the cornea, fundus and eyeball.

An ophthalmologist is competent to treat the following diseases:

Conjunctivitis - an inflammatory process of the mucous membrane of the eye;
- trachoma – chronic conjunctivitis;
- stye - a dense and painful formation on the inner edge of the eyelid, often containing purulent contents;
- and myopia of varying degrees - a visual defect in which it is impossible to fully see a distant image;
- – a vision defect opposite to myopia, in which an approximate image is not focused;
- cataracts – clouding of the eye lens, which significantly reduces the ability to see;
- glaucoma - increased eye pressure that impairs vision;
- color blindness – impaired ability to recognize one or more colors and their shades;
- spring catarrh - seasonal conjunctivitis caused by an allergen;
- blepharitis - swelling and redness of the upper and lower eyelids, accompanied by the discharge of cloudy fluid from crusts cracking along the edge of the eyelid;
-blindness varying degrees heaviness;
- eye injuries of any origin.

What does an ophthalmologist do as a doctor - a specialist in his field?

A qualified doctor conducts initial examination and generates a list of necessary or recommended examinations.

During the diagnostic process, visual acuity is determined and intraocular pressure is measured. Using special equipment, the thickness of the cornea is measured and the retina is examined.

The initial examination consists of examining the outer and inner surfaces of the eye.

Inspection of the external surface

External diagnostics of the eye is carried out according to the standard scheme:

Checking the viewing angle (peripheral vision);
- examination of the upper and lower eyelids for swelling, swelling and redness;
- assessment of the condition of the cornea and eyeball;
- the reaction of the pupils to light exposure is studied.

An important component when external diagnostics is a test of visual coordination. Performed this procedure by testing vision for the synchronous work of 6 muscles. A common way to check the synchronization of eyeball movements is to track a beam of light.

Examination of the inner surface of the eye

Using a biomicroscope, the doctor examines the eye tissue and optical environment. Are being studied blood vessels eyes for absence of damage, the presence of cataracts and tumors is excluded. For ease of examination, the doctor uses eye drops, dilating the pupils.

Study internal state The doctor examines the eyes using an ophthalmoscope. With its help, a picture of the state of the retina is formed, optic nerve and the vessels surrounding it.

When should you contact an ophthalmologist?

An urgent visit to an ophthalmologist is necessary in the following cases:

Deterioration of vision;
- painful sensations in the eyes of any nature (burning, irritation, dryness);
- involuntary lacrimation;
- unclear image when trying to see objects far or near;
- presence of redness;
- discomfort in the light;
- blurred vision;
- sensation of the presence of a foreign body.

A preventive examination should not be neglected if there are no complaints. Thus, persons over 40 years of age are recommended to visit an ophthalmologist once a year in order to exclude glaucoma and cataracts due to age-related changes. Also, regular monitoring of the visual organs is necessary for people suffering from high pressure and diabetes.

For adults and children with good vision, it is enough to undergo a full diagnosis once a year, and after the first consultation, the doctor will definitely clarify how often to carry out checks.

For people who already wear glasses but want to switch to contact lenses, a full diagnosis by an ophthalmologist is necessary. This will help prevent the development of undesirable consequences.

Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine that studies human visual function, the anatomy and physiology of the eyes, and also deals with the treatment of pathologies and various diseases of the visual organs. In recent years, poor vision has become a very common pathology for many people. The reasons for the deterioration of visual function are hidden in various factors, but most often it is constant work on the computer, non-compliance with safety rules when watching TV or when operating with various gadgets. When vision problems occur, a person seeks medical help from an ophthalmologist. What kind of doctor is an ophthalmologist? Is there a difference between an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist?

Many people know that an ophthalmologist is a doctor who treats various diseases organs of vision. But medical and preventive examinations are often performed by an ophthalmologist. The question arises: an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist - are there differences in competence between these doctors?

If we summarize the differences between doctors of these specializations, then medicine will claim that an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist are identical concepts. Both terms are synonymous with each other, and in translation from Greek, both ophthalmologist and ophthalmologist mean the concept of “eye”.

To completely dispel doubts about the competence of these doctors, you can refer to the medical documentation. 30 years ago, the staffing schedule of medical institutions included a specialty with the name - ophthalmologist. But in 1981, the position of a doctor who deals with various problems of visual function was abolished, and a specialty appeared in official medical records - ophthalmologist, which replaced the specialty of an ophthalmologist.

Elderly patients, out of habit, call an “eye doctor” an ophthalmologist, but modern youth prefers to call such a doctor an ophthalmologist.

What does an ophthalmologist treat?

So, what kind of doctor is an ophthalmologist has already been determined, but what does a doctor in this specialty do?

In most cases, patients with farsightedness or myopia turn to ophthalmologists. A certain proportion of patients are people suffering from cataracts, astigmatism, glaucoma, and keratoconus. In fact, an ophthalmologist treats wide range diseases associated with deterioration of visual function. This type of doctor specializes in diagnosing and treating hereditary diseases. The competence of an ophthalmologist also includes the treatment of pathologies such as:

• trachoma - chronic conjunctivitis;
• conjunctivitis - inflammatory process membranes of the eye;
• injuries to the organs of vision of various origins;
• stye - neoplasm purulent in nature on inner eyelid eyes;
• blindness of various stages;
• myopia - the inability to clearly see objects located in the distance;
• farsightedness - the inability to see objects located close to a person;
• blepharitis - redness and swelling of the lower or upper eyelid, which produces cloudy liquid discharge;
• cataract - clouding of the lens of the eye;
• spring catarrh - seasonal exacerbation of allergies;
• glaucoma - increased eye pressure;
• color blindness - a violation in recognizing certain shades of the color spectrum;
• ptosis - drooping of the upper eyelid;
• eyelid deformation;
• retinal detachment and many other ophthalmological diseases.

Examination by an ophthalmologist

From a very early age, a child needs an ophthalmologist; he helps to identify and recognize possible pathologies visual function. The first visit to the doctor is mandatory for a child who has reached 2 years of age. one month old. During examination, the ophthalmologist recognizes existing pathologies in the newborn. Such an examination is very important, because it helps to promptly begin the necessary course of treatment for the existing ophthalmological disease, which will avoid unpleasant consequences at an older age. As is known, visual function The child’s vision is finally formed only by the age of 14, so before this age it is very important to regularly show the child to an ophthalmologist.

Adults are recommended to consult an ophthalmologist once a year. It is recommended to visit an ophthalmologist several times a year for people who have already been diagnosed with an ophthalmological disease. Regular inspection seeing a doctor will help prevent the development of an existing disease, as well as start timely treatment, if the pathology transforms into a chronic or acute stage.

Reasons for urgently contacting a doctor are:

• If a child who has already reached 2 months of age has a visual reaction when he stops observing objects moving in front of him. In this case, a pediatric ophthalmologist is involved in diagnosis and treatment;
• When a child at any age begins to constantly rub or squint his eyes;
• In the event that one or both eyes stop closing completely;
• If signs of strabismus are observed;
• When a stye forms on the eye;
• If there are painful sensations, unpleasant itching, profuse lacrimation, swelling, burning;
• When atypical liquid discharge begins to form in the eyes, and especially if such discharge becomes purulent in nature;
• With increased photophobia;
• In case of varying degrees of eye or head injuries;
• If objects begin to split in front of your eyes, a “darkness” or “veil” appears.

Specifics of the work of an ophthalmologist when examining a patient

When a patient contacts, the ophthalmologist conducts an initial examination and draws up a list of necessary subsequent examinations. During the inspection the following is checked:

- visual acuity;

- eye pressure is measured;

— using special devices, the thickness of the cornea is measured, and the retina of the eye is also examined.

The patient's visual acuity is checked in the usual way for everyone; for this, an ophthalmologist's table is used, which shows letters in a certain position and of different sizes in each line. The patient, covering one eye, must correctly name the letters that the doctor points to.

In children younger age Visual acuity is checked in a similar way, but instead of letters, the ophthalmologist shows small patients pictures or figures.

It is very important for all patients to carefully follow the doctor’s recommendations, since the fullness of visual function depends on their accurate implementation.

In contact with

Today there is a very widespread fashion for various electronic devices. Of course, all the newfangled gadgets do not have much benefit for our health. And, as a result, the demand for the services of an ophthalmologist or ophthalmologist is growing. Many of us don't even think about what a complex system actions occur in our heads, at the moment when we look at the phone screen or at changes in nature. An ophthalmologist is a fairly in-demand profession these days. About what ophthalmology is, and what an ophthalmologist does when conducting an appointment, how it differs from an ophthalmologist - details below.

Ophthalmologist: who is he and what does he treat?

An ophthalmology specialist (correctly put differently, an ophthalmologist) is a broad-profile eye specialist in diseases of the visual organs who prescribes surgical or conservative treatment. Medical and anatomical knowledge about the eyes began to appear already in the first 100 years of our era.

Although, at that time no one knew such a word, specialists in restoring vision were found even then.

One of these was the healer Cornelius Celsus. His achievements gave an excellent start to the development of ophthalmological medicine. Doctors Fedorov and Filatov played even more significant roles in this process. Spectrum of specialists eye diseases nowadays it is quite wide.

Professions that restore health to the visual organ:

1. Oculist– corrects the quality of vision, prescribes pharmacological agents, shows numbers and letters.
2. Ophthalmologist– identifies eye diseases, eliminates them with the help of medications or surgery.
3. Optometrist– does not carry out the healing process as such, but selects tools to ensure healthy vision (glasses, lenses, advises gymnastic exercises).

The doctor uses a specialized compound that causes the patient's pupils to increase in diameter as much as possible. Next, intraocular pressure is measured to rule out glaucoma. There is no difference between an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist.

What is the difference: an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist

An ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist are similar representatives of the same profession. In fact, an ophthalmologist does the same thing as an ophthalmologist. The difference in the use of these terms consists only in a peculiar fashionable trend and outdated stereotyping. Any of the named specialists checks vision according to the same scheme.

Scheme for checking vision with an ophthalmologist (ophthalmologist):

1. Grade appearance eyes in general (eyelids, cornea, iris, pupil, etc.).
2. Testing your vision when looking at distant objects (in any ophthalmologist’s office there is a table with different sized letters or pictures).
3. First you need to close one eye and name the letters or pictures you see, and then the same procedure is repeated for the other eye.

If the patient was able to see all the letters and icons on line 10 from upper limit boards - this speaks of absolute vision. Lines 11 and 12 are seen by farsighted patients. If you were able to see a very small number of lines, then you need to select the necessary glasses or lenses.

For this purpose, a special mechanism with holes for several lenses is used.

An ophthalmologist in a children's clinic makes a discount for children who do not read, using a table of cut circles. Also, for children, when testing close vision, special cards with different letter sizes are used. It is also important to check for color blindness using special visual tests. The next step is to check the fundus.

Are an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist the same thing?

An ophthalmologist must thoroughly understand the structure of the eyes and easily operate with various treatment methods. There is a thinking that an ophthalmologist is a more qualified doctor, with a better way of providing services. However, this is a common misconception. An ophthalmologist is a simpler, but rarer name for the profession of an ophthalmologist.

Both children and adults should contact an ophthalmologist if you notice the following symptoms:

• It has become difficult to distinguish between objects at far and near distances;
• It is difficult to focus your gaze on one object;
• All elements of the environment seem to split into two;
• There was a feeling of “sand” in the eyes;
• Black dots and bright spots appear before the eyes;
• Eyes often and profusely water;
• Suppuration began to appear in the eyes;
• The sclera acquired a yellowish tint.

It is necessary to urgently run to the doctor if the brain has been injured, there is a persistently increased arterial pressure or blood glucose. The doctor will check the clarity of vision, measure intraocular pressure, and do other necessary procedures and, if necessary, prescribe glasses or contact lenses.

Features of an eye doctor

According to ordinary citizens, both an ophthalmologist and an ophthalmologist are two different people With different levels education. The origin of these words, accordingly, varies significantly. Oculist is a concept that came to us from an already dead Latin language, and ophthalmologist is a Greek word that also arose in ancient times. In support of the previous section, it is worth clarifying that both of these terms mean one profession that deals with eye diseases.

Each of them performs the same production actions, the scheme of which includes:

• Analysis and detection of disease states;
• Timely elimination of inflammation;
• An effective preventative program.

Chronic diseases that affect vision can also be referred to an ophthalmologist. For example, increased blood sugar, excess weight, increased blood pressure, malfunction of the endocrine glands. The reasons that influence changes in vision can be included in an infinite periodic system.

Even such an unusual condition as pregnancy can negatively affect the visual perception of this world.

An ophthalmologist can conduct a fairly high-quality examination of the patient and independently select for him necessary medications and optometric instruments. It is the ophthalmologist who has the opportunity to restore lost vision to the patient. He has the power to cure such serious diseases as glaucoma, cataracts and others. serious illnesses eye.

When to contact a pediatric ophthalmologist

Children's health is a sensitive issue, especially if it concerns vision. Complete optic nerve and other components good vision are formed in adolescence. Therefore, before this period, it is very important for the child to undergo as often as possible ophthalmological examination. As a result of a systematic visit, the pediatrician examines the child and prescribes the necessary treatment.

You should contact a pediatric ophthalmologist if there is a hint of the following diseases:

• Inflammation of the eyes (including conjunctivitis, blepharitis, etc.);
• Myopia;
• Farsightedness;
• Brain injuries at birth;
• Injury to the visual apparatus;
• Noticeable squinting of the eyes towards the bridge of the nose.

All of the eye diseases presented above have their own, most often, pronounced symptoms. If a parent notices that the child takes longer to see an object or he himself complains of low ability to see, then it is necessary to urgently check his vision.

Professional pediatric ophthalmologist must have a specialized higher education in pediatrics, with an emphasis on children's vision.

This is the significant difference between treating children's delicate eyes and testing vision in adults. Every specialist who tests a child’s vision must take into account specific features child's body.

Eye doctor: who is an ophthalmologist (video)

Ophthalmologist and ophthalmologist are synonymous concepts. A doctor of this specialization is engaged in the restoration of the most important human organ- eye treatment. It makes no sense to trust one louder and more common name. Perhaps many would rather trust their vision to a new-fangled ophthalmologist than to an outdated ophthalmologist, or maybe vice versa, but this is only explained by a question of psychology. Still, you should rely on the quality of the specialist’s work and his professionalism, and not on the name of his profession.

OPHTHALMOLOGY(from the Greek ophthalmos - eye and logos - science), the study of diseases of the eye and its appendages. The name was first introduced by the Gottingen prof. Gimli (K. Him- j ly) in 1801. Diseases of the organ of vision are so noticeable and have such a sensitive effect on its function that already at the dawn of human culture they should have attracted attention and served as the subject of treatment. It is not surprising, therefore, that in the most ancient monuments containing any systematic information about honey. knowledge, a prominent place is given to the eyes. Of the six canonical books on medicine found in the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs, one treats specifically about eye diseases. In the so-called the collection of Hippocrates contains a description of the eye and its diseases; among the latter, in addition to diseases of the connective and cornea, which are relatively accessible to observation, there appears, among other things, night blindness, a nosological unit established only on the basis of patients’ complaints and doing honor to the attentiveness and generalizing ability of doctors of that era. In the writings of Celsus there is for the first time an account of the reduction of cataracts, an operation that has undoubtedly been performed for a long time. Very detailed description eyes, their symptoms and methods of treating them were given by Galen. At the level of knowledge of the latter, in general, the doctrine of eye diseases remained almost until the 17th century. despite the fact that after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Greek medicine continued to be diligently cultivated, first in Vivantia, and then by the Arabs. The manuals on eye diseases that have survived from this period are written in chap. arr. Arab doctors; containing a number of valuable individual observations, they are still, from the point of view of modern knowledge, replete with gross errors * O. could take the path of real progress only after the general growth of natural scientific knowledge, which began in the Renaissance, created for this necessary base. Kepler’s clarification of the dioptrics of the eye was of immediate and enormous importance for the development of vision. On the one hand, this marked the beginning of a correct understanding of refractive errors of the eye and their appropriate correction with glasses. But even earlier, the result of Kepler’s research had an impact on changing the view of the essence of cataracts. Before Kepler, the lens was considered the light-sensitive part of the eye. Therefore, it was not only impossible to think about removing the lens from the eye, but it was also impossible to imagine that blindness, eliminated by surgery, could depend on a disease of the lens. Kepler proved and Scheiner (Schei-peg) confirmed this with a beautiful experiment that images of objects are obtained not on the lens, but on retina, and reduced the meaning of the lens only to its refractive ability. Later a short time Brissaud discovered that cataracts do not depend on the appearance of a film in front of the lens, as had hitherto been imagined, but on the clouding of the lens itself, which logically led to a new method of cataract surgery, introduced by Daviel in the mid-18th century, which introduced a huge revolution not only in the treatment of cataracts itself, but also in the entire organization of ophthalmology. If by this time the most important eye surgery- removal of cataracts - was carried out using a primitive technique, accessible and actually practiced by the most unskilled performers; cataract extraction according to Daviel was a surgical procedure. an intervention that required the doctor to have certain scientific training. Since the advantages of the new operation were soon fully determined, the treatment of cataracts from the hands of traveling “ophthalmologists” and barbers inevitably had to pass into the hands of more qualified surgeons, who at the same time began to be interested in other eye diseases." In this way, At the end of the 18th century, modern scientific medicine began to be founded, and its further development was on par with the development of the rest of medicine.In all countries of Western Europe, mainly in capitals and large cities, medical institutions for eye care gradually began to emerge .Individual doctors began to deal primarily, very rarely, exclusively, with the treatment of eye diseases.A number of new manuals on O. appeared, which differed favorably from the previous ones both in their anatomical and physiological part, and in the presentation of treatment methods, the main . techniques of a surgical nature.Teaching O. in high fur boots and medical schools was then in the hands of professors of surgery. Only in Austria-Hungary in 1818 was a separate department of eye diseases established at the University of Vienna, which was occupied by Beer (J. Beer); Over the next 20 years, the same departments were created in the rest of the country. This event put the Vienna School of Ophthalmologists in one of the first places for a long time.” Other countries did not quickly follow the example of ABCfpo-Hungary. Here they waited until the moment when O. made a rapid leap in its development and in a short time became so enriched in theoretical and practical terms that the rights of this discipline to a separate place among medical sciences. sciences have become indisputable. This leap, called by the historian O. Hirschberg “O. reform,” took place in the 50s and 60s of the 19th century. and is associated with the names of two physiologists—Helmholtz and Donders—and the clinician-ophthalmologist Graefe. Helmholtz invented the eye mirror in 1851 - ophthalmoscope(see), which made it possible to see the posterior part of the eye in the living eye, which was previously completely inaccessible for research. Donders systematized and developed the information that had accumulated by that time about the diopter of the eye in relation to the conditions actually encountered in humans. In his book “Anomalies of Refraction and Accommodation of the Eye,” Donders put this difficult branch of physiological optics of the eye into such an accessible form that it easily became the property of practical O. Correcting refractive errors with glasses, which until now was in the hands of few knowledgeable empiricist opticians, has become a matter mathematically based ophthalmologist. At the same time, Graefe in Berlin, one of the first in Germany to devote himself exclusively to O., having abandoned the speculative ideas of humoral pathology, which was already losing ground under his feet, concentrated everything rational that had accumulated over previous centuries in the treatment of eye diseases and that he had studied from the largest ophthalmologists of that time , widely applied latest achievements, in particular the Helmholtz ophthalmoscope, and enriched O. with many wonderful observations and fruitful ideas, which is why he is rightly recognized as the founder of modern O. Tak. arr. by the middle of the 19th century. O. finally emerged as a special specialty, which received a largely special methodology. Working with an eye mirror and a set of optical glasses required both special technical skills and a special theoretical attitude. At first, attempts were made to combine O. in the hands of one specialist with oto -rhinolaryngology, but this connection turned out to be fragile, and these areas began to be developed theoretically and practically applied completely separately, Graefe himself was appointed the first ordinary professor of O. at the University of Berlin in 1867. Even earlier, departments were established in Germany O. in Leipzig (1853) and in Munich (1863), and after Berlin, all other German universities soon received independent departments of O. The example of Germany was gradually followed throughout the cultural world, and the teaching of O. became firmly established. Graefe left her mark on the further development of O for a long time. He attracted a large number of student doctors, many of whom devoted themselves to medicine only under his influence. Among them were representatives of different countries, from America to Russia inclusive, but most of his students were Germans. Many of them subsequently occupied the departments of O. in German high fur boots and actively continued to develop ophthalmological science in a variety of directions. Germany thus became the center of ophthalmological scientific thought, and the vast majority of further work in the field of O. belongs to German ophthalmologists. Reviewing the development of modern O., which began under Gref and continues to this day, one can outline a number of stages in it, vaguely limited in time, but still distinguished by characteristic features and indicating the main milestones along which ophthalmological thought moved. If the first half of the 19th century. with the beginnings of scientific O. can be called the period before the ophthalmoscope, in which Ch. arr. While the anterior part of the eye and surgical techniques for cataracts, optical iridectomies, strabismus, etc. were developed, the second period, covering the third quarter of the 19th century, was primarily characterized by the use of an eye mirror to study the posterior part of the eye. Here virgin soil opened up for the work of an ophthalmologist. At first, almost every new product represented a scientific discovery. The works of Graefe, Ruete, Coccius, Eger, Donders, Liebreich (Ruete, Liebreich, Coccius, Jager) and others described typical diseases of the fundus - excavation of the optic nerve in glaucoma, embolism of the central retinal artery, a picture of thrombosis of the central vein, congestive nipples, atrophy of the optic nerves, changes in the retina during nephritis, pigmentary degeneration of the retina and its detachment, syphilitic disease of the choroid, retinal glioma, sarcoma of the choroid, etc. Guidelines for ophthalmoscope examination were compiled and the first atlases of ophthalmoscopic pictures were published (Liebreich, Jäger). These ophthalmoscopic studies, in addition to clarifying the essence of various visual disorders, played a special, significant role in O.’s development. As a result, medicine, which became a special specialty, not only did not lose contact with the rest of medicine, but this connection turned out to be much closer than originally expected. The eye mirror detected diseases at the bottom of the eye (in the retina and optic nerve nipple) that turned out to be a consequence or a constant companion of disorders internal organs(nephritis, diabetes, blood loss, brain tumors, etc.). Moreover, the visual disturbance caused by these changes in the fundus of the eye often leads patients to an ophthalmologist at a time when the internal disorder still has a mild effect on the patient’s general condition and does not cause corresponding complaints. A very close relationship was discovered between changes in the eye and general diseases of the body, fraught with diagnostic and therapeutic prospects, and the development of issues in this area began to attract major forces (Forster, Leber, Uhthoff, Wilbrand, Behr, etc.) and yielded rich results. For next period O. must be considered characteristic work Pat.-Anat. character. Study of Pat. the anatomy of eye diseases began in the first half of the 19th century, but the founder of Pat. histology of the eye was the anatomist and pathologist Heinrich Müller (N. Mtiller), who, not without the participation of Graefe, became interested in this area; O. owes him the development of the method of pathological histology. eye research * a number of works about Pat. changes in albumin-(ric retinitis, pigment degeneration retina, capsules, cataracts, etc. (1856-1858). In Müller's laboratory in Würzburg they studied the patent. histology of the eye and numerous figures of the new O. prepared for independent work in this area. The successes of cellular pathology also encouraged ophthalmologists to clarify under a microscope what they clinically observed both in the anterior and posterior section eyes of change. Pat.-hist. research, ch. arr. eyes enucleated for various reasons, began to be diligently used by a number of ophthalmologists and contributed greatly to elucidating the essence of inflammatory, degenerative and other lesions of the eye, its oncology, etc. * This work, in which Schweiger, Becker, Leber, Michel, Fuchs ( Schweigger, Becker, Michel, Fuchs) and others, continues to this day. time; its results are summarized in a comprehensive, richly illustrated collection of work “ Pathological anatomy eyes" edited by K. Wessely. Following microscopic examination, often combined with it, methods of experimental pathology entered the field and became widely used. TK of the last decade of the 19th century. One can note a new stage in O.’s development, expressed in the involvement of bacteriology to clarify the etiology of eye diseases. Relevant studies by Utgof and Axenfeld, Morax (Mogakh) and others clarified the significance of pneumococcus in the etiology of creeping corneal ulcers and purulent traumatic infections of the eye, and also led to the discovery of special pathogens (Koch-Wicks bacillus, Morax-Axenfeld digoubacil), pathogenic for connective, partly cornea and causing typical inflammation of these parts of the eye. Axenfeld’s book “Die Bakteriologie in der Augen-heilkunde”, which appeared in 1907, gives an idea of ​​the enormous work done by ophthalmologists in this direction. Based on bacteriological studies, a technique for checking the conjunctiva before operations on the eyeball was also developed. - Beginning of the 20th century. Under the influence of Mendel's teachings, which had just become famous, medicine was marked by an increased interest in the phenomena of hereditary transmission of diseases. Ophthalmologists have already drawn attention to the hereditary nature of certain eye diseases (color blindness, pigmentary degeneration of the retina, the form of atrophy of the eyes and nerves described by Leber). Mendelism gave impetus to further research, which added to the previously known a large number of newly described hereditary eye diseases, which significantly changed previous ideas about the origin of the so-called. malformations of the eye and, most importantly, shed new light on the question of refraction of the eye, in particular the origin of myopia (A. Steiger). In recent years, one can finally note a trend in O. that seeks to use the successes of biochemistry to explain the pathogenesis of certain eye diseases (Jess Goldschmidt). Along with the listed, some of the transient trends in ophthalmology, a thin wedge of differentiation continued continuously and gave great results, highlighting a large number of new nosologies. units that remained unknown to previous observers. For example, we can name from the cornea discoid keratitis, congenital degenerative changes cornea, from the retina - tubes. periphlebitis, angiomatosis, etc.-Fnct. examination of central and peripheral vision, which turned out to be extremely important for diagnosing both local diseases eyes, and lesions of the central visual pathways, did not cease to attract attention and improved all the time (Foerster, Snellen, Bjerrum). Much has been done in the field of diagnosing color vision disorders, which has received great practical significance(Holmgren, Stilling, Nagel). A lot of work went into clarifying objective research eyes; The most important successes on this path are the simplification of the Helmholtz ophthalmometer with its adaptation for wedge purposes (Javal) and the introduction into wedge, the practice of eye tonometry (Maklakov, Schiotz). IN wide sizes in all countries, operational O. was developed, and not only were the types of achievements used and expediently changed general surgery(asepsis, plastic surgery), but new special, very valuable surgical techniques have also been introduced, especially in the treatment of glaucoma. Drug therapy has also received great development, enriched with miotic drugs (pilocarpine, eserine), pre<-паратами серебра (протаргол, аргирол), сделаны попытки специфической хемотерапии (од-тохин). Особое значение получили наконец продолжавшиеся исследования по физиол. оптике, давшие благодаря работам Гульстранда (A. Gullstrand) чрезвычайно ценные практические результаты как в диагностике глазных заболеваний (безрефлексный офтальмоскоп, щелевая лампа), так и в коррекции аномалий рефракции. Практическое применение идей Гульстранда за последние 15-20 лет явилось новым полем деятельности, широко и весьма плодотворно разработанным рядом офтальмологов (Fogt, Кбрре и др.). Заслуживает внимания, что рамки О. в ее современном развитии значительно раздвинулись. Первоначально анатомо-физиологич. сведения о строении и функции глаза О. получала от анатомов и физиологов;первые пат.-гист. исследования глаза также произведены были не" офтальмологом по специальности, а патологом (Мюллер). В дальнейшем однако пат. анатомия глаза сделалась исключительно достоянием офтальмологов. То же самое приходится сказать о бактериол. исследованиях. Специалисты-физиологи второй половины 19 в. органу зрения уделили много внимания (Konig, Hering, Nagel, Kries), но и в этой области работы офтальмологов занимают весьма видное место (Лебер, Hess, Parinaud, Gullstrand).-Нормальная анатомия, гистология и эмбриология глаза также постепенно становятся полем деятельности современного офтальмолога (Лебер, Sattler, Greff, Szily). Т. о. содержание О. все более выходит за пределы науки о б-нях глаза и приближается к перво^ начальному определению Гимли, по к-рому О. должна быть «всеобъемлющей наукой о глазе в его здоровом и б-ном состоянии». Вполне естественно, что «головная» роль в этом принадлежит «мастерской» офтальмолога-офтальмологической клинике. В Германии в 1876-1887 гг. было вновь построено 8 ун-тских глазных клиник. До мировой войны к ним прибавилось еще 8. При постройке клиник широко принимаются во внимание не только интересы б-ных и преподавания, но и нужды научно-исследовательской работы. Лаборатории, приспособленные для самых разнообразных, в том числе экспериментальных исследований, библиотеки, снабженные всей специальной литературой, стали необходимой и обычной принадлежностью офтальмологической клиники. Трудами сотрудников во многих из них составлены музеи патолого-анато-мических, сравнительно-анатомических, эмбриологических препаратов. Все эти условия чрезвычайно облегчают научную работу и способствуют ее эффективности. По образцу Германии построены были позднее клиники и в других странах, часто еще более грандиозные. Значительным стимулом к научному творчеству, как и в других областях медицины, явились специальные офтальмологические общества, съезды и периодическая печать. Первое офтальмологическое об-во образовалось по инициативе Грефе в Германии и ежегодно стало устраивать съезды в Гейдельберге. По примеру Германии такие офтальмологические об-ва возникли во всех странах. Впоследствии образовались еще местные объединения офтальмологов. Наибольшее значение до сих пор сохранило Германское офтальмологическое об-во, съезды которого привлекают большое число участников не только из Германии, но и из других стран, С 1857 по 1929 г. состоялось 12 международных офтальмологических съездов. Специальная периодическая печать по О. чрезвычайно разрослась и выходит теперь почти на всех языках культурных народов. Первый в Европе офтальмологический журнал «Annales d"oculistique» выходит с 1838 г., основан Cunier. По подсчету Мерца в начале 20 в. выходило 38 офтальмологических журналов. «Archiv f. Ophthalmologies, который начал издаваться в 1854 г. под редакцией Грефе, до сих пор сохранил значение основного научного органа по О. Наиболее распространенным считается третий по времени своего появления немецкий журнал «КН-nische Monatsblatter fur Augenheilkunde». Весьма важным пособием для научной работы были периодически выходившие критические обзоры по разным отделам анатомии, физиологии и патологии глаза (Ergebnisse), a также издания характера Handbuch"oB и энциклопедий. Современное состояние О. представляется в следующем виде. 1. Обладая прекрасно разработанными диагностическими методами, позволяющими не только рассмотреть, но и измерить почти всечасти глаза, О. является вероятно самой точной мед. специальностью; сомнительные диагнозы здесь крайне редки, разногласий в диагнозе почти не бывает. 2. Офтальмологическое исследование получило огромное, часто решающее значение для распознавания ряда внутренних и нервных заболеваний. 3. Оперативная О. благодаря применению местной анестезии, асептики, бактериол. проверке содержимого конъюнкти-вального мешка, большого количества технических улучшений прежних оперативных приемов и введению новых достигла высокой степени совершенства, сведя к весьма небольшим цифрам столь частые раньше послеоперационные воспаления и давая успешные результаты в тех случаях (извлечение инородных тел и паразитов из задней части глаза, удаление новообразований из глазницы и т. д.), к-рые раньше считались недоступными для операций. 4. Местная лекарственная терапия обладает рядом весьма действительных средств и стала более рациональной, отчасти будучи проводима на основании данных бактериологического исследования (воспаление соединительной оболочки). 5. Пат.-анат., экспериментальные и клин, исследования весьма значительно расширили знания об этиологии и патогенезе глазных заболеваний, в частности о зависимости их от общих инфекций организма, сифилиса, туберкулеза и др., от поражения желез внутренней секреции, и тем создали основы для рациональной терапии. Констатируя все эти достижения, нельзя все же не отметить, что проблемы патогенеза катаракты и глаукомы и этиологии трахомы не разрешены до сих пор, несмотря на то, что с момента возникновения научной О. они безусловно находятся в центре ее внимания. Офтальмология в СССР. Как и другие отрасли медицины, О.-проникла в Россию из Западной Европы, гл. обр. из Австро-Вент грии и Германии. Первые сведения об окулистах или «очных мастерах» в России относятся к 17 в. В делах Аптекарского приказа упоминаются окулисты Давыд Брун, живший в России с 1628 г. по 1651 г., Яган Мальгорн (1659-1673), Яган Шартлинг, прибывший из Гамбурга в 1676 г., и нек-рые другие. Все это иностранцы, частью взятые в плен во время войны частью приехавшие по вызову; они обслуживали гл. обр. царский двор и армию-В 18 в. началось насаждение мед. образования в России, сначала в медико-хир. школах при госпиталях, а затем во вновь учрежденном Московском ун-те. Кроме того в 1783 г. был открыт в Петербурге Калинкинский медико-хир. ин-т, где преподавание велось на нем. языке. Имеются косвенные указания, что в этих медиц. школах преподавали и лечение глазных б-ней. Только о Калинкинском ин-те определенно известно, что в 80-х гг. 18 в. там преподавал «полный курс глазных б-ней и требуемых ими хир. операций» профессор акушерства и физиологии Карл Брандау. И в 19 в. на мед. факультетах, к к-рым с 1802 г. прибавились Дерптский,Казанский, Харьковский, а с 1844 г. Киевский, О. еще очень долго преподавалась не самостоятельно, а вместе с хирургией. В Московском ун-те О. читалась сначала проф. хирургии Гильдебрантом, с 1823 по 1846 г. Эвениусом, имевшим поручение преподавать О., а также десмургию и ме-ханургию, позднее хирургами Басовым и Ма-тюшенковы-м. Так же обстояло дело в провинциальных ун-тах. Только в Медико-хирургической академии в Петербурге в 1818 г. была учреждена особая кафедра О. Ее занимал до 1834 г. Груби, а в 1835 г. с изменением устава Академии кафедра была упразднена, и преподавание О. и здесь перешло к профессору хирургии. Крупные заслуги перед русской О. в этом периоде имеют д-р Лерхе в Петербурге и д-р Броссе в Москве. Первый фактически является основателем Петербургской глазной лечебницы (ныне имени Гиршмана), директо- ром к-рой он был с 1824 по 1847 г. Второй создал в 1826 г. Московскую глазную б-цу. Оба они получили специальное образование за границей, гл. обр. в Вене у Вера, были очень преданы своему делу и обнаружили большие организаторские способности. Созданные ими учреждения, существующие до наст, времени, сыграли крупнейшую роль как центры практической О., всегда стоящие на высоте современной науки и служившие рассадником офтальмологических знаний. Только в 1860 г. учреждены были кафедры О. с клиникой в Московском ун-те и в Медико-хирургической академии в Петербурге и в течение следующего десятилетия такие же кафедры были открыты в провинциальных университетах. Первые профессора О. русских ун-тов-Юнге в Петербурге, Браун в Москве, Иванов и Мандельштам в Киеве, Адамюк в Казани, Гиршман в Харькове-все основательно подготовились к своей деятельности в длительных заграничных командировках, гл. обр. в Германии. Большинство из них в точности выполнило программу, выработанную в то время для аспирантов О.: «у Мюллера в Вюрцбурге учиться анатомии, у Гельмгольца в Гейдельберге-физиологии и у Грефе в Берлине-клинике». В Россию они приехали как представители новой, реформированной Грефе офтальмологии с готовыми навыками научной работы. Здесь они не только с успехом развили большую практическую работу^по лечению глазных б-ней, не только преподали тысячам студентов основы современной О., но и подготовили в своих клиниках значительное количество квалифицированных специалистов и воспитали учеников-своих преемников по кафедре. Деятельностью первых профессоров академическая О. в России была поставлена на большую высоту, не уступавшую западноевропейскому уровню. Благодаря сохранившемуся и позже обычаю заграничных командировок и вторая смена профессоров О. (Добровольский, а за ним Беллярминов в Петербурге, Маклаков и Крюков в Москве, Ходин в Киеве, Агабасов в Казани, Барбашов и Бра-унштейн в Харькове) осталась в тесной связи с западной наукой. Тяжелейший гнет в России последних десятилетий 19 и начала 20 в. естественно не был благоприятен для развития научной, работы. Ужасающий рост глазной заболеваемости населения, особенно в местностях, пораженных трахомой (Казань, Харьков и Киев), культивируемый условиями капиталистическо-помещичьего режима, обрекал врачей на бесплодность, т. To: The bourgeois-landowner clique that dominated in Russia, at best, left a narrow base for organizing ocular care, without providing any opportunity for its development. And if, nevertheless, a number of names came forward in the field of O. (A. V. Ivanov, who made a major contribution to the normal and pathological anatomy of the eye, A. N. Maklakov, F. O. Evetsky, S. S. Golovin), then The regime that dominated Russia at that time was least to blame for this. Despite him, due to a number of conditions in the struggle against the autocracy, O. developed on its own specific basis. Original manuals on O. appeared, written by Russian scientists (Khodin, Kryukov, Mandelstam, Adamyuk), and a special journal, “Bulletin of Ophthalmology,” founded by Khodin in 1884 Special scientific societies were organized - the Moscow Society of Eye Doctors, the St. Petersburg Ophthalmological Society. In 1913, the First Congress of Russian Eye Doctors took place, attracting 250 participants and representing significant scientific interest. Only the October Revolution unfolded the broadest tasks for ophthalmologists in the USSR, the implementation of which was the content of the work of ophthalmologists of the Union over the last decade. Soviet medicine put forward the slogan of providing workers with special medical care, including ophthalmic care. Meanwhile, by the beginning of the World War in Russia, there were only about 300 eye specialists, the vast majority of whom were concentrated in large cities. On the ophthalmic mologic clinics of medicine, faculties, institutes for advanced training of doctors, partly to eye hospitals, which by that time already existed not only in the capitals, but in some places in the provinces, were responsible for intensive training of practical eye doctors necessary to fill the positions of ophthalmologists in the newly opened a large number of local medical institutions (see Eye diseases). The preventive direction of Soviet medicine, in connection with the clearly realized requirement of life to put science at the service of the proletariat, prompted a number of ophthalmologists to study prof. hazards, industrial injuries in order to develop appropriate preventive measures (see. Vision). The intense concerns of the Soviet government about improving the living conditions of national minorities directed attention to their high incidence of eye diseases and led to special ophthalmological examinations to determine the extent of the disease and develop control measures. Along with the fulfillment of these tasks, which were imperatively dictated by the needs of socialist construction, after a period of decline caused by the imperialist and civil wars, scientific work on various problems of theoretical and practical science resumed and assumed wide dimensions. The revival of this work was greatly facilitated by the quantitative growth of scientific institutions. The number of ophthalmological clinics in connection with the opening of new medical centers. faculties and institutes has almost tripled. In addition, for an in-depth study of trachoma, which is very common within the USSR, its etiology, prevention and therapy, trachomatous institutes were established in Kazan, Ufa, Saratov, at the same time training doctors to work in areas predominantly affected by trachoma. Recently, on the basis of two large eye clinics - Kharkov and Leningrad named after. Girshman-opened the Ukrainian State. Institute of Theoretical and Practical O. and Leningrad Ophthalmological Scientific and Practical Institute with the broad tasks of comprehensive study of ophthalmological problems and training of scientific and practical workers in the field of ophthalmology. The scope of scientific research work on O. can be partly judged by the large number of works published by Soviet ophthalmologists, not only within the USSR, but also in foreign periodicals. Nowadays, two special journals on O. are published within the USSR: “Soviet Bulletin of Ophthalmology” (formed in 1932 from the merger of the “Russian Ophthalmological Journal”, 1922-31, and “Archive O.” 1925-31) and “ Ukrainian Ophthalmological Journal" (since 1929). In 1926, the All-Union Congress of Eye Doctors took place in Moscow. It was followed by the All-Russian Congress in Leningrad (1928) and the Ukrainian Congress in Kharkov (1930), in addition, 3 regional North Caucasian ophthalmological congresses were held. Ophthalmological societies and circles have been formed and function in almost all cities with honey. institutes. Lit.: History.-A Damyuk E., On the history of the Department of Ophthalmology in Kazan, Uch. zap. Kazan University, 1908, book. eleven; Botvinnik N., Review of the scientific activities of the department of the main hospitals (Military Medical Academy, scientific research activities from 1918 to 1928, M., 1929, report, list of works); German F., Materials for the history of ophthalmology in Russia, Weekly Journal of Practitioners. Medicine, St. Petersburg, 1895, No. 4 and 14; Delov V., Materials for the history of ophthalmology in Russia, dissertation, St. Petersburg, 1895; Merts A., A brief sketch of the history of ophthalmology (L. Bellarminov and A. Merts, Eye books, part 1, L., 1928); N eese E., Ophthalmology and its representatives at Kiev University, M., 1905; aka, Albrecht von Graefe, his life and merits, Arch. oft., vol. I-IV, 1926-28; Shagov M., Academic Ophthalmic Clinic Military Medical. Academy from 1874 to 1924, ibid., vol.VII, part 2-3, 1930; Hi g-s with h b e g J., Geschichte der Augenheilkunde (Hndb. d. ges. Augenheilkunde, begr. v. A. Graei "e u. Th. Saemisch, B. XIV-XV, Lpz.-V. , 1899-1918).Manuals and reference publications.-A id about g-s k i y N., Course of eye diseases, M.-L., 1931; Eye diseases, edited by L. Bellarminov and A. Mertz, parts 1-2, L., 1928-30; Golovin S., Clinical ophthalmology, vol. I, parts 1-3, M.-L., 1923-25; K r go-kov A. and Odintsov V., Course of eye medicine, 12th ed., M.-L., 1931; Collection of works on professional pathology of the eye, edited by A. Samoilov, Labor improvement and revolution of everyday life, issue 23, M. , 1929; Sergievsky L., Lectures on ophthalmology, Samara, 1926; Augenarztliche Operationslehre, hrsg. v. A. Elschnig, B. I-II, V., 1922; Aienleld Th., Die Bakteriologie in der Augenheilkunde, Jena, 1907 ; aka, Augenheilkunde (Hndb. d. arztlichen Erfahrungen im Weltkriege 1914-1918, hrsg. v. O. Schjerning, B. V, Lpz., 1922); aka, Lehrbuch u. Atlas der Augenheilkunde, Jena, 1923 ( Russian publishing house - St. Petersburg, 1911); V a 11 J., Modern ophthalmology, v. I-II, Philadelphia, 1927; B-r iickner A. u. Meisner W., Grundriss der Augenheilkunde, Lpz., 1928; Encyclopedic frangaise d'ophtalmologie, sous la dir. de F. Lagrange et E. Valude, v. I-IX, P., 1903-10; Fuchs E., Lehrbuch der Augenheilkunde, Lpz.-Wien, 1926 (Russian ed. .-M., 1932); Handbuch der gesamten Augenheilkunde, bcgrtindet von A. Graefe u. Th. Saemisch, 2. u. 3. Aufl., V., since 1911 (series of extensive monographs); Manual of ophthalmology, ed. by the Surgeon-General's office, War department U.S., Washington, 1917; Kurzes Handbuch der Ophthalmologie, hrsg. v. F. Schieck u. A. Bruckner, B. I-VІII, B.", 1930-32; Meller J., Augenarztliche Eingriffe, Wien-Lpz. , 1918 (Russian edition - Novocherkassk, 1912); Moore R., Medical ophthalmology, L., 1925; Mog ax V., Precis d'ophtalmologie, P., 1923; Poulard A., Traite d'ophtalmologie, v. I-II, P., 1923; R b m e r P., Lehrbuch der Augenheilkunde, V.-Wien, 1923 (Russian publishing house - St. Petersburg, 1912); T e r r i e n F., Chirurgie de l'oeil et de ses annexes, P., 1902; T b g b k E. a. Grant G., Surgery of the eye, L., 1925; We s s e 1 at K., Auge (Hndb. der speziellen pathol. Anatomie u, Histologie, hrsg. v. F, Henkeu. O. Lubarsch, B. XI, T. 1 u. 2, V., 1928-31). Bibliography and abstracts. - Arkhangelsk V., Russian ophthalmological bibliography VA 1923-1930, Russian ophthalmological journal, vol. III-XII, 1924-30; Evetsky F., Review of Russian ophthalmological literature for 1885, Medical review, vol. XXVI, 1886; Kryukov A., Review of Russian official literature for 1879-84, ibid., vol. XIII, XV, XVII, XIX, XXI, XXIV, 1880-85; Sergievsky L., Starodubtseva M. and etc., Russian ophthalmological bibliography for 1904-13, Vestn. oft., vol. XXI-XXXI, 1904-13; Blessig E., Ophthalmologische Bibliographic Russlands 1870-1920, Dorpat, 1922; Jahres-bericht iiber die gesamte Ophthalmologie , V., since 1873; Zentralblatt f.die gesamte Ophthalmologie u. ihre Grenz-gebiete, V., since 1914; Zentralblatt f. praktische Augenheilkunde, Lpz., since 1877. Periodicals. - Archive of Ophthalmology, M., 1925- 31; Bulletin of Ophthalmology, Kyiv-Moscow, 1884-1917; Russian ophthalmological journal, M., 1922-31; Soviet Bulletin of Ophthalmology, M.-L., since 1932; Ukrainian Ophthalmological Journal, Kharkov, since 1929; Annales d'oculistique, Bruxelles-P., from 1838; Archiv f. Augenheilkunde, Wiesbaden-Munchen, from 1869; Archives d'ophtalmologie, P., from 1880; Archives of ophthalmology, N.Y., since 1869; British journal of ophthalmology, L., since 1885; Graefes Archiv d. Ophthalmologie, Leipzig-Berlin, since 1854; Jahresbericht uber die Leistungen und die Fortschritte im Gebiete der Ophthalmologie, Tubingen u. Berlin, 1872-1929 (with a break); Klinische Monatsblatter f. Augenheilkunde, Erlangen-Rostock-Cassel-Stuttgart, since 1863; Zeitschrift f. Augenheilkunde, Berlin, since 1899; Zeitschrift f. ophthalmologische Optik mit Einschluss der Instrumenten-kunde, B.,cl913.3. Frashg-Kamenetsky.