Bronchopneumonia of calves is a disease that occurs frequently and leads to large economic losses in farms Oh. There are other diseases caused by hypothermia in calves, the most common of which is bronchitis. If treatment is untimely and incorrect, the calf develops a profound dysfunction of the respiratory organs, which causes intoxication of the body. Irreversible processes occur in the bronchopulmonary organs. The protective functions in the body are reduced, which increases the activity of microbes that develop intoxication and disrupt the functioning of all body systems, cardiovascular and digestive functions are affected, and a cough appears.

Bronchopneumonia in calves develops from hypothermia

Thanks to timely diagnostic measures, prevention and treatment of this disease, it is possible to successfully solve the problem of preserving and successfully breeding cattle, increasing meat and dairy production. Scientists are developing effective ways that make it possible to combat this pathology. But even history and scientific research do not answer questions about the etiology, pathogenesis, treatment and prevention of the disease, what needs to be done, and why actions do not always lead to successful treatment. This applies most of all to calves that have been diagnosed with catarrhal bronchopneumonia.

Even an adult and strong cow can be susceptible to this disease, which is widespread in all regions of Russia, and is the second in a row - the first place is occupied by diseases that occur in gastrointestinal tract. After an animal recovers from bronchopneumonia, it gains little average daily weight, and its productive and breeding parameters noticeably deteriorate.

Causes of the disease

Respiratory diseases in calves appear as a result of:

• reductions protective properties and poor adaptability of young animals,
• occurrence of stress,
• being in very crowded conditions,
• feeding food with insufficient amounts of vitamins,
• the presence of hypovitaminosis,
• finding young individuals in unventilated areas.

Walking in the fresh air and good food- excellent prevention of bronchopneumonia

Diseases affecting the respiratory organs of calves are developing at a rapid pace. Inflammatory processes begin in the bronchi due to fluid accumulated in the alveoli. At the beginning of the disease, exudate containing serous contents collects in the lungs, causing a cough. Then the pathology affects the bronchi of the young animal, and the calf begins to develop bronchopneumonia.

The following causes cause bronchopneumonia in calves:

1. Poor functioning of the respiratory organs due to prolonged confinement in a small room.
2. Exposure to cold and dampness, causing the appearance colds.
3. Overheat. Weakly developed calves exposed to the sun for a long time lose normal thermoregulation. This is accompanied by elevated temperature body and increased respiratory rate and increased heart rate.
4. Finding calves in rooms containing high concentrations of ammonia or hydrogen sulfide in the air, which occurs when the ventilation system is insufficient and the sewer system is faulty.
5. Hypovitaminosis A, D.
6. Protracted diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.
7. Unfavorable microflora in the air and the body, containing streptococci, staphylococci, pneumococci, diplococci - harmful and dangerous microorganisms.

Prolonged exposure to the scorching sun can lead to disruption of the body's thermoregulation.

How does the disease affect the calf’s body?

A favorable soil is created that disrupts the functions of the respiratory and circulatory organs. The pulmonary system begins to work weakly, and enters the lungs a large number of dust, ammonia and water vapor, disease-causing breathing apparatus. History provides many cases where prevention saves the lives of young animals.

The adverse effects experienced by the calf's nervous system impair the functioning of nerve cells, reduces the protective functions of the young animal’s body, the concentration of lysozyme and histamine decreases, and the globulin fraction of proteins increases.

These factors cause blood to stagnate in the lungs, their mucous membranes swell, leukocytes become less active and the movement of mucus accumulated in the bronchi slows down, and coughing.

The animal begins to suffer from shortness of breath, it begins to get nervous, the activity of the cardiovascular system begins, the tone in the blood vessels decreases and blood pressure drops. The occurrence of stagnant processes leads to the occurrence of dystrophy, affecting the heart muscle, changing the functioning of the liver. The chloride content in the blood decreases, and hydrochloric acid is observed in the stomach, exceeding the norm. The kidneys lose their ability to filter, releasing too much protein into the urine.

Shortness of breath and nervous behavior are the first symptoms of bronchopneumonia in calves

Preventive measures in the event of an epidemic

The reasons why diseases occur can be different. For mating, it is necessary to select the right pairs; it is desirable that the cow and bull are strong and healthy, otherwise offspring may be born with a weak and susceptible body to diseases, having unusual anatomical features:

• Short trachea.
• Narrowed bronchial tree.
• Not elasticity of fabrics.
• Increased content of blood vessels.

When the functions of the internal organs are disrupted, the calf is susceptible to the rapid development of pathology: streptococci, pneumococci, staphylococci and E. coli, viruses, and various fungi begin to rapidly multiply in the microflora, which become the most active. With an increased concentration of microbes and toxins, necrotic inflammation begins in the mucous membranes, causing coughing.

Soon, the scattered areas affected by the disease begin to merge and form large foci of inflammation, compacting the lung tissue. The calf begins to cough and snort, breathing rapidly because ventilation in the lungs is impaired, and the remaining healthy parts of the lung have to function twice as hard.

The animal’s blood vessels become less elastic, the heart muscle suffers from congestion, increased intoxication negatively affects the functioning of the kidneys, the central nervous system malfunctions, and the calf’s thermoregulation processes are disrupted, which is accompanied by fever.

Bronchopneumonia in a calf leads to the rapid development of pathologies of internal organs

Symptoms of bronchopneumonia

The development of catarrhal bronchopneumonia can occur in various forms of severity:

1. In acute form.
2. In subacute form.
3. In chronic form.

Characteristics of the acute form of the disease

The acute form of the disease lasts from 5 to 10 days. During this period, the calf becomes lethargic, its appetite decreases, and slight malaise is noticeable. The animal does not breathe through its nose, but open mouth. Hyperemia appears on the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes. The serous exudate that collects in the nose becomes purulent.

The calf begins to cough sharply and dryly at first, then the cough becomes frequent, weak and wet

The animal’s health is quickly deteriorating, it is breathing harshly, moist wheezing is heard, the heart sounds are muffled, a blood test shows an increase in leukocytes. By the third day, the sick calf experiences a sharp increase in body temperature to 42 C. Deterioration occurs general condition, there is the appearance of physical inactivity, rapid and difficult breathing.

With bronchopneumonia, an increase in the concentration of leukocytes in the blood of the calf is observed

The acute course of bronchopneumonia changes the mucous membranes of most animals - they become noticeably pale. Upper Airways swell, and the bronchi and bronchioles contain a large amount of exudate. Enlarged bronchial lymph nodes

Characteristics of the subacute form of the disease

The main symptoms of the subacute form of the disease are decreased appetite and decreased nutritional status within a month, and malnutrition develops. This phase is accompanied by an evening increase in body temperature by 1–2°C, the calf breathes with shortness of breath, accompanied by a wet cough. If the disease worsens, the condition may worsen: shortness of breath increases, hypoxia develops, digestion fails, and diarrhea appears. The animal becomes exhausted and a large amount of purulent mucus appears in the bronchi. The bronchi themselves are swollen, hyperemic, and hemorrhage is possible. The pleura contains a lot of fluid, the liver enlarges

Characteristics of the chronic form

A calf that has become ill with a chronic form of bronchopneumonia is significantly behind a healthy calf in growth and becomes hypotrophic. His cough won't stop and his nose is running. serous fluid, the mucous membranes become bluish, the body temperature rises slightly, and when listening to the lungs, a dry wheeze is heard. There is a constant change in appetite.

A healthy calf has pink mucous membranes and good weight

Diagnosis of the disease

Why is diagnostics necessary? When diagnosing the disease, the conditions in which young animals are kept, their behavior indoors and outdoors, and the state of the entire livestock farm are taken into account. For determining correct diagnosis The following indicators are used:

• General condition of the calf.
• Clinical manifestations.
• Blood test indicators.
• Laboratory data.

X-ray examinations show local opacities in the lungs of varying degrees. Carrying out bronchopulmonary and biochemical analyzes allows you to find out about the presence and degree inflammatory process to prescribe effective treatment. Differential diagnosis allows recognizing the rapid spread of the disease and identifying the pathogen. Streptococcal infections affect articular bones calf

X-ray lung makes it possible to accurately diagnose bronchopneumonia

Getting rid of the disease

The living conditions of calves affect the effectiveness and time of treatment of bronchopneumonia. A sick calf should not be kept together with healthy ones, and treatment is prescribed veterinarian, which takes into account the form and stage of the disease before prescribing medications or injections of medications in the form of antibiotics, macrolide and sulfonamide solutions and procedures. The timeliness and dosage of the medications used determine how long and successful the treatment of the disease is.

Despite the rapid development of the disease and the difficulties arising from this, if the treatment is timely and correct, and the course of the disease is favorable, its foci are quickly eliminated, recovery occurs relatively quickly - no more than in a week and a half.

If the process goes unfavorably, purulent and necrotic changes may occur, leading to the formation of pleurisy, pericarditis, and secondary immune deficiency.

Treat calves with bronchopneumonia using known drugs, not always effective. This delays the recovery process, and the acute course of the disease progresses to other stages. The functions that protect the body are disrupted, and immunity is reduced. It is difficult to cure a disease if it has become protracted or chronic. Etiotropic therapy consists of ensuring a sufficient concentration of certain drugs in areas of inflammation.

A sick calf should be separated from the herd

During the acute and subacute phases of the disease, calves are treated with antimicrobial drugs that quickly penetrate histohematic barriers. Protracted processes treatments cause swelling, cellular infiltration with vascular sclerosis appears, as well as compression of capillaries near inflammatory foci in the body of sick calves. This makes it difficult for drugs to enter the body.

Therefore, the prescription of antimicrobial drugs should be done in a timely manner. The use of immunostimulating drugs is effective.

Prevention of bronchopneumonia

It is better to prevent diseases than to treat them - everyone knows this. Preventive measures are carried out in a complex that includes:

1. Correct content.
2. Proper feeding of calves and cows.

How to keep calves

Calves must be kept in premises where animal hygiene standards are observed. Valid values:

• relative humidity not exceeding 70%.
• The air temperature difference should fluctuate within 5°C.
• concentrations of ammonia vapor and hydrogen sulfide - not higher than 5 mg/m.

Calves need to be walked more often; during the summer heat, pastures should be equipped with special sun canopies. In premises for calves, it is necessary to comply with all sanitary rules, keep them clean, use disinfectant solutions for cleaning - this prevention must be carried out regularly.

The calf should be outside regularly

It is recommended to vaccinate newborn calves, use aerosols, and use individual and herbal medicine: adding medicinal plants to milk that can increase the body's resistance and improve the functioning of the immune system.

Preventive measures that should be carried out by a veterinarian

1. Create Better conditions habitat and proper feeding of the pregnant cow and newborn calf.
2. Provide the necessary microclimate in the room.
3. Feed granulated grass meal to calves.
4. Feed calves steamed concentrated feed.
5. Periodically massage the calves' chest.
6. Create a sanitary regime with systematic maintenance of cleanliness in the premises where calves are kept.
7. Carry out ongoing disinfection and sanitization of the premises.
8. May-August transfer calves to summer buildings with shady canopies and flooring.
9. Use products that increase resistance - supplements containing sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals.
10. Raise calves while respecting the necessary conditions with their maintenance and adaptation, prevent the development of dyspepsia and other diseases.
11. staff livestock farms healthy calves.
12. Timely identify and treat sick calves, and subject the rest to preventive treatment.

For the prevention of bronchopneumonia good care must be provided to both the calf and the cow

How to feed calves

To strengthen young organisms, it is necessary to introduce vitamin supplements with minerals in sufficient quantities into the food of animals. Do not overfeed calves with rough, dry and concentrated types of feed.

The appearance of bronchitis in calves

Bronchitis in calves is a common disease caused by the presence of any inflammatory process affecting the mucous membranes and submucosal layers of the bronchi. A young and strong cow is not susceptible to this type of disease, which affects a young, old or weakened body. Bronchial diseases are spreading massively among young animals on special farms where they fatten and breed cows without complying with zoohygienic conditions. Prevention helps to avoid the disease that causes severe coughing. History knows many cases of complete recovery of sick animals.

Classification of the disease

The disease is qualified by:

1. Course (acute or chronic).
2. Origin (primary or secondary).
3. Characteristics of inflammation (catarrhal, purulent, hemorrhagic or fibrinous).

Exist the following types bronchitis:

• Macro-bronchitis, which affects the large bronchi.
• Micro-bronchitis affecting small bronchi.
• Bronchiolitis, in which the bronchioles are damaged.

Treatment of bronchitis should be comprehensive: in addition to medications, it is necessary to give calves herbs and infusions medicinal herbs, which contain sufficient amounts of vitamins. Inhalations using aerosols with antimicrobial properties are also effective. Various influences are known medicinal plants on pathogenesis, their provision of pronounced symptomatic effects and a certain etiotropic effect, facilitating the course of the disease, reducing its duration, improving the outcome, saving money spent on medications.

One of the most common diseases of young animals, which causes large economic losses for farms, is bronchopneumonia of calves. The disease is not contagious, but very common. Delayed treatment leads to the development of profound dysfunctions of the respiratory organs, intoxication of the young body and the occurrence of irreversible processes in the bronchopulmonary system. With a decrease in the protective properties of a young organism, the degree of virulence of microbes increases, which causes the development of intoxication and disruption of the normal functioning of all organs and systems.

Features and causes of the disease

For of this disease characterized by the rapid development of the inflammatory process in the bronchi, caused by the accumulation of fluid in the alveoli. On initial stages disease, exudate with serous contents collects in the lung parenchyma. Pathological process quickly affects the entire bronchial tree of a young animal and is called bronchopneumonia.

Decrease in defense forces in young animals, the appearance stressful situations, large overcrowding, the use of feed with low vitamin content, keeping young animals in poorly ventilated areas create favorable conditions to disrupt the processes of the circulatory and respiratory organs.

As a result of reduced functioning of the pulmonary system, dust, ammonia or water vapor accumulates in the alveoli. These circumstances contribute to the rapid occurrence and high degree of spread of bronchopneumonia in calves.

A predisposing cause of the disease may also be an incorrectly selected couple for mating, which produces offspring that are weak and susceptible to many diseases, having their own anatomical features, such as: a short trachea, a narrowed bronchial tree, inelasticity of tissues in the walls of alveolar cells and increased content blood vessels.

When many factors are violated, favorable conditions are created for the rapid development of pathogenic microflora (streptococci, pneumococci, staphylococci and coli begin to function actively). An increased concentration of microbial enzymes and toxins leads to necrotic inflammation of the mucous membrane.

Subsequently, the affected areas merge with each other, forming large inflammatory foci, and the lung tissue becomes denser. During this period, the animal experiences coughing, snorting, and rapid breathing. The ventilation process in the lungs is disrupted, and the remaining healthy areas of the lung tissue function to an increased degree.

The elasticity of blood vessels decreases, causing congestion in the heart muscle. Increased intoxication of the whole body leads to changes in the filtration capacity of the kidneys, the activity of the central nervous system, and disruption of thermoregulation processes.

Symptoms of bronchopneumonia

According to the severity of development, catarrhal bronchopneumonia occurs in three stages:

• acute form;
• subacute form;
• chronic form.

Acute form

The development of the acute form of the disease is observed within 5–10 days. During this period, symptoms such as lethargy and loss of appetite are observed. Breathing through an open mouth is possible. Hyperemia is observed in the nasal mucosa and conjunctiva of the eyes. Serous exudate flows from the nose, which later becomes purulent in nature.

The animal has a cough: at first it is dry and sharp, and then frequent and wet. The general condition is getting worse every day. When listening, breathing is harsh with moist rales, heart sounds are muffled, and there is an increased content of leukocytes in the blood.

Subacute form

In the subacute form of the disease, decreased appetite and delayed growth are observed within 20–30 days. During this period of illness, the animal’s temperature in the morning is normal, in the evening it increases by 1–2°C, shortness of breath and shortness of breath are observed in the respiratory system. moist cough. With exacerbation, the condition may worsen, shortness of breath may increase, hypoxia will develop, and digestive changes in the form of diarrhea may occur.

Chronic form

In the chronic form of the disease, young animals are significantly stunted in growth. The animal constantly coughs, serous contents flow from the nasal openings, the mucous membranes are cyanotic, and the body temperature is increased, but not significantly. Dry wheezing can be heard in the lungs.

How to diagnose the disease?

When making a diagnosis, it is necessary to take into account the conditions of keeping young animals, the behavior of young animals indoors and outdoors, and the condition of the entire farm. The diagnosis is made based on the general condition of the animal, clinical manifestations, blood counts and laboratory data.

By doing x-ray examination darkening of the pulmonary pattern of varying degrees is noticeable. Bronchopulmonary and biochemical tests are carried out, with the help of which the degree of the inflammatory process can be determined and prescribed effective scheme treatment.

When carrying out differential diagnosis with pasteurellosis, rapid spread of the disease is observed. The presence of a pathogen is determined in laboratory materials.

When a streptococcal infection develops in an animal, joint damage occurs and a pathogen is detected in the materials being examined.

How to get rid of bronchopneumonia?

The effectiveness and duration of treatment depend on the living conditions of the animals. A sick calf should be kept in a separate pen or box. Drugs used to treat bronchopneumonia are prescribed only by a specialist (in particular, a veterinarian). This takes into account the form and stage of the disease.

For this purpose, antibiotics of the first and second generations, macrolide and sulfa drugs. The success of the cure largely depends on the form of the disease and the extent to which all animals are affected. All medications must be administered in a timely manner and in the appropriate dosage.

Preventive measures

It is easier and cheaper to prevent any disease than to cure it. Complex preventive measures in this case, it consists of proper maintenance, feeding of young animals and the number of queens.

Premises intended for keeping must comply with zoohygienic standards. The permissible relative humidity in the stall should not exceed 70%, the air temperature difference in the calf barns should not be more than 5°C, the permissible concentration of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide in air vapor should not be more than 5 mg/m.

Also, as a preventive measure, animals need to be given regular walks, and in the hot season, provided with pasture under shady canopies. In places where young animals are kept, it is important to maintain a sanitary regime, maintain cleanliness, use disinfectants, and introduce the necessary vitamin supplements into the diet. All these activities provide high degree safety of young animals.

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

OMSK STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY

COURSE WORK

Subject: Complex method treatment of calves suffering from catarrhal bronchopneumonia

Completed:

student of group 507

Samylov R.E.

Checked:

OMSK 2008

Introduction

Characteristics of the place of work

Short review literature

1 Definition of the essence of the disease

2 Etiology

3 Pathogenesis

4 Clinical signs

5 Rationale for diagnosis and differential diagnosis

6 Course and prognosis

7 Treatment

8 Prevention

Bibliographic list of used literature

INTRODUCTION

bronchopneumonia pathogenesis epithelium

Bronchopneumonia in young cattle is widespread in all regions of Siberia. Calves aged 20 days to 3 months are most susceptible to the disease.

The economic damage caused by the disease consists of losses due to mortality, forced slaughter, stunted growth and development of young animals.

Many authors have found that predisposition to pulmonary diseases depends on the resistance of newborn calves to the surrounding microflora, which is determined by the level of colostral immunity. If the level of hemoglobin (Hb) in the blood serum is below normal, then the animal may subsequently develop bronchopneumonia caused by opportunistic microflora.

Early detection animals with immunodeficiency allows for the timely implementation of a set of organizational and veterinary and sanitary measures aimed at preventing pulmonary diseases calves

.Characteristics of the place of work

I did an internship at OSBBZh in the Kalachinsky district. The veterinary station is located in a two-story building, on the first floor, on the second there is a veterinary and sanitary laboratory for the examination, standardization and certification of food products obtained from agricultural productive animals.

On the territory of the OSBBZH there is also a garage with transport, a dook for disinfection of premises where sick animals were kept, a vivarium for healthy ones, and a separate one for infected animals (rabbits, mice, sheep). There is a crematorium for disposal of corpses and other pathological material, storage and utility rooms.

Animals in the city are mainly in the private sector - large and small livestock; poultry - geese, ducks, chickens; pigs.

Livestock are kept mainly in sheds with natural supply and exhaust ventilation, tethered, with straw bedding. Feeding: mixed-grass hay, root crops, grain fodder, silage, haylage, compound feed. Watering - free access to the drinking bowl. Exercise.

2. Brief literature review

.1 Definition of the essence of the disease

Bronchopneumonia is a disease manifested by inflammation of the bronchi and lobes of the lung with the accumulation of exudate and desquamated epithelial cells in the alveoli. The pathological process begins with the appearance in the lungs and pulmonary parenchyma serous exudate, which corresponds to the picture of catarrhal pneumonia in adult animals, but since the bronchi are primarily affected and the process quickly spreads along the bronchial tree, such a disease, observed mainly in young animals, is usually called bronchopneumonia.

Bronchopneumonia is registered in various zones of the country and in terms of specific gravity ranks second after gastrointestinal diseases. According to a number of authors, 20-30% of young animals in the country suffer from bronchopneumonia every year. As a result of illness, the average daily increase in live weight, productive and breeding qualities of animals are reduced, therefore the prevention of bronchopneumonia is a matter of paramount importance, which requires a timely and competent solution.

.2 Etiologies

Bronchopneumonia of calves is a polyetiological disease. According to V.M. Danilevsky (1985), Alikaev (1973, 1985), and other authors, bronchopneumonia is a disease of non-infected origin, the microbial factor in the development of nonspecific bronchopneumonia in calves is not leading and has no pathogenetic significance. Microorganisms isolated from the lungs of sick and dead animals are seprophytic; they become pathogenic only when the resistance of the animal’s body decreases.

It is customary to distinguish between endogenous and exogenous causes of bronchopneumonia in calves. Endogenous causes include: incorrect selection of pairs during mating, inbreeding, leading to the birth of unhealthy young animals with reduced resistance and susceptibility to many diseases. Endogenous causes also include the anatomical and physiological features of young animals: short trachea, narrow bronchi, richness of blood vessels in the mucous membrane lining the respiratory tract, weakness of the elastic tissue of the walls of the alveoli and their saturation lymphatic vessels. Reasons given contribute to the rapid occurrence and spread of the inflammatory process.

Exogenous causes of bronchopneumonia include: violations of feeding conditions for breeding stock, in particular, insufficiency of retinol in their diets. This causes them to develop A-hypovitaminosis, as a result of which the content of vitamin A in the milk that calves feed on decreases.

Hypovitaminosis A causes the development of the barrier function of the mucous membranes in calves, in particular, respiratory bullets, as a result of which their permeability to microorganisms increases (V.M. Danilevsky, 1985)

Exogenous factors also include various conditions feeding and keeping young animals, hypothermia or overheating, which leads to impaired circulation, the appearance of congestion in the lungs, which creates favorable conditions for the development of bronchopneumonia; keeping young animals in poorly equipped premises with unsatisfactory ventilation, as a result of which dust, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane, water vapor accumulate in the air, or vice versa, excessive dryness of the air occurs; Microbial air pollution is also an exogenous cause of bronchopneumonia in calves.

A predisposing factor to the appearance of this disease is a decrease in the resistance of the animal’s body, which can occur against the background of stress (transport, industrial), as well as against the background of more severe early age diseases, for example, gastrointestinal tract (dyspepsia)

.3 Pathogenesis

The pathogenesis of bronchopneumonia is quite complex, because All organs and systems of the sick animal are involved in the process. Pathogenesis is determined by the state of all organs and tissues, primarily by the state of the nervous system.

Unfavorable factors primarily cause changes in the nervous system, therefore, a violation of humoral and nervous factors, the body’s defenses decrease, the concentration of lysozyme and histamine in the blood decreases, and the globulin fractions of proteins increase. This contributes to stagnation of blood in the lungs and swelling of the mucous membranes of the bronchioles and bronchi. The phagocytic activity of leukocytes and the lysozyme activity of bronchial mucus sharply decreases, and the barrier function of the epithelium decreases.

Initial changes are characterized by exutative processes, leukocyte reaction, accumulation of serous exudate in the bronchi and alveoli.

Accordingly, favorable conditions develop for the development of microflora, which can be both pathogenic and saprophytic. Microflora multiplies quickly, microbial enzymes and toxins accumulate in high concentration and cause necrosis of the mucous membranes and the development of the inflammatory process. Lobular inflammation and microbronchitis occur.

Subsequently, the affected areas merge and foci form.

At the site of inflammatory foci, the lung tissue is compacted and has a smooth surface.

arise defensive reactions- snorting, coughing.

Microbial toxins are absorbed into the blood, intoxication occurs, and consequently, vascular porosity occurs. Effusion accumulates in the lung parenchyma, causing catarrh. Ventilation of the lungs becomes more difficult, and the functioning of healthy areas increases. As a result, breathing intensifies and becomes more frequent. A decrease in the level of gas exchange in the lungs causes a decrease in gas exchange in the tissues, accumulation of under-oxidized metabolic products occurs, and acidosis develops. As a result of this, shortness of breath, nervous phenomena, weakening of the cardiovascular system, decreased tone of blood vessels and, accordingly, decreased blood pressure. As a result of decreased blood flow, stagnation occurs, dystrophic processes occur in the heart muscle, and liver function changes. A lack of chlorides in the blood causes a disruption in the formation of of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, livery develops.

The filtration capacity of the kidneys changes, and protein appears in the urine. Microbial toxins affect the central nervous system, causing disruption of thermoregulation, and fever develops accordingly.

With a favorable course and elimination of etiological factors, as well as with the provision of medical care, after 7-10 days recovery occurs.

If the course is unfavorable, the process can take on a lobar character, purulent-necrotic changes, pleurisy, pericarditis occur, and secondary immune deficiencies appear.

.4 Clinical signs

Depending on the severity of bronchopneumonia, three forms of the disease are distinguished

Acute form of bronchopneumonia

.

Diarrhea develops.

.5 Rationale for diagnosis and differential diagnosis

Clinical signs Bronchitis Bronchopneumonia Pleurisy Temperature Slightly elevated Zones of dullness in the apical lobes of the lungs No Yes

When making a diagnosis, general data on the sanitary and zoohygienic conditions of raising young animals and the maintenance and feeding of mothers are taken into account. Pay attention to the behavior of the animal indoors, on walks to its general condition, take into account Clinical signs and pathological changes. At x-ray examination various degrees of darkening of the pulmonary field are found, mainly in the apical and cardiac lobes, an increase in the bronchial pattern, loss of visibility of the cardiophrenic triangle and the contours of the ribs in the affected areas.

In the differential diagnosis, streptococcal infection should be excluded (the presence of a specific pathogen, temperature, the appearance of lesions of the joints, digestive organs, etc.), salmonellosis (impairment of the functions of the digestive organs at the beginning, detection of the pathogen during laboratory research, characteristic pathological changes). When young animals become infected with pasteurellosis, a rapid spread of a large number of animals is noted; During laboratory testing, the pathogen is isolated.

Viral pneumonia calves can be distinguished from bronchopneumonia only by the results of a bioassay and histological examination affected lung tissue, as well as using serological and immunofluorescent reactions.

.6 Course and prognosis

Acute form of bronchopneumonia

Lasts 5-10 days. It begins with mild malaise, lethargy, loss of appetite; Only on the 2-3rd day of illness does the temperature rise to 40-42 degrees.

Shortness of breath occurs, and in severe cases - breathing with an open mouth.

The conjunctiva is hyperemic in the same way as the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, then cyanosis of the mucous membranes develops.

Serous-mucous discharge from the nose appears, which then becomes catarrhal-purulent.

The cough at the beginning is sharp, dry, jerky, then weak, wet, less painful, but more frequent. The general condition worsens, physical inactivity sets in. Breathing is rapid and difficult.

Percussion reveals foci of dullness in the lungs in the area of ​​the anterior and middle lobes.

On auscultation - hard vesicular respiration, moist rales. Heart sounds are muffled.

The content of leukocytes in the blood increases, neutrophilia occurs with a shift to the left, i.e. typical blood picture during inflammation.

Subacute form of bronchopneumonia.

Usually lasts 20-30 days. Characterized by decreased appetite, stunted growth, decreased body fat, i.e. malnutrition. Usually under acute course bronchopneumonia is noted in the morning normal temperature body of a sick animal, and in the evening - an increase in temperature by 1 - 1.5 degrees / C. Shortness of breath and a wet cough occur.

On auscultation - bronchial breathing; Percussion reveals lesions in the lungs.

During the period of exacerbation, there is a noticeable deterioration in the general condition, an increase in temperature, increased shortness of breath and an increase in signs of toxicosis and hypoxia.

Diarrhea develops.

Chronic form of bronchopneumonia.

This form is characterized by pronounced growth retardation; calves become hypotrophic. Appetite is variable. The cough is constantly present. The temperature rises slightly. From the nasal openings - serous discharge; cyanosis of the mucous membranes.

Auscultation reveals dry rales in the lungs, and percussion reveals areas of dullness.

2.7 Treatment of calves with bronchopneumonia

Treatment of sick animals must be carried out comprehensively, dividing patients into separate groups depending on the course of the disease and its severity. The main condition successful treatment bronchopneumonia is to eliminate etiological factors, create optimal living conditions and provide adequate feeding.

Complex treatment in combination with properly organized conditions of keeping and feeding leads to complete recovery of animals in acute and subacute course bronchopneumonia. Treatment of animals suffering from chronic bronchopneumonia does not lead to complete recovery, but helps to stop the process. Young animals that have recovered from chronic bronchopneumonia cannot be used for breeding purposes and are subject to culling.

Complex treatment includes simultaneous use various means: antimicrobial therapy (antibiotics, sulfonamides, nitrofurans, arsenic preparations), replacement therapy(vitamins, macro and microelements, oxygen therapy), symptomatic therapy (cardiac medications).

Currently, group treatment methods are successfully used in animal husbandry. For this purpose, aerosols of drugs are used. Injected directly into the lungs, medicinal substances have their effect within a few minutes (V.F. Voskoboynik, 1991).

A.I. Reshetnikov, 1980, also reports that aerosol drugs enter the respiratory tract and lungs, bypassing the liver, are quickly absorbed into the blood and lymph, accumulate there and act directly on the affected areas of the lung tissue.

For individual treatment, antimicrobial drugs are given orally, administered intramuscularly, intratracheally, or intravenously. Many authors emphasize the effectiveness of intratracheal administration of antimicrobial drugs. For these purposes, you can use penicillin, neomycin, tetracycline at a dose of 5-10 thousand units. per 1 kg. Mass or 10-15 ml of 10% solution of sulfadimezine.

One of the antibiotics active in this farm is administered intramuscularly.

Against the background of active antimicrobial therapy, it is effective to carry out novocaine blockade of the stellate ganglia.

Pathogenetic therapy includes the use of expectorants and absorbents. As an expectorant, calves are given ammonium chloride and bicarbonate of soda orally, and inhalations of turpentine and sodium chloride vapor are also used.

In order to increase the natural immunobiological resistance of sick animals, nonspecific gamma globulins, gamma beta globulins, polyglobulins are administered intramuscularly at a dose of 1 ml per kilogram with an interval of 48 hours 2-3 times.

V.K. Kretinin, S.N. Lapnikov (1999) note the high therapeutic effectiveness of citrated blood in the treatment and prevention of acute respiratory infections young cattle.

Hematotherapy is used to stimulate the body's defenses. For this, the blood of the animal itself or another animal of the same species is used.

Autologous blood is injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly into the neck area, inner surface thighs or rump. In case of increased coagulability, for every 100 ml of blood, add 5 ml of a 5% sodium citrate solution or 10 ml of a 10% sodium salicylate solution.

Blood is injected into healthy tissues adjacent to the affected ones, since a short-term barrier is created at the injection site, which has autoantiseptic properties.

The dose of blood is determined each time depending on the characteristics of the sick animal and the nature of the pathological process in the body.

In acute organic inflammatory processes, the recommended dose of autologous blood for large animals is 125-150 ml, and for small animals 5-50 ml.

At the beginning of the disease, it is advisable to administer blood in the evening.

For diffuse inflammatory processes accompanied by a long-term febrile state, small doses of blood are used (2-25 ml for small animals).

Single injections of blood are rarely given positive result, it is better to do 4-5 injections, although the first two are most effective. When, after the first injection of blood, depression occurs in animals, especially of the hematopoietic organs, the dose of repeated injection is ½. The interval between injections is from 48 hours to 4 days.

The more severe the disease, the lower the dose and the longer the interval between injections. The body's reaction to each subsequent injection weakens. Therefore, with repeated injections, it is necessary to increase the blood dose, but without exceeding the maximum.

If after 2-fold administration the animal does not notice any improvement in its general condition, the course of the pathological process and morphological composition blood, autohemotherapy should be abandoned. If autohemotherapy gives a positive result, then in the first 2-4 days the temperature decreases and the symptoms of the inflammatory process decrease. Swelling disappears, infiltrates resolve (Kovalenko L.M., 1991).

There is a short-term exacerbation of the pathological process with subsequent normalization of its course.

According to V.A. Herman (1964) and B.M. Olovkova (1960), whole blood as an irritant causes a two-phase reaction, first expressed in a decrease in the number of erythrocytes and leukocytes within 24 hours (negative phase) followed by their increase (positive phase).

To enhance therapeutic effect Physiotherapeutic procedures are used: heating young animals with Solux and Infraruge lamps, diatemia, rubbing chest irritating substances.

The use of replacement and symptomatic therapy helps rapid recovery physiological functions of the body.

Vitamins in the treatment complex for bronchopneumonia acquire particular importance, as they normalize metabolism and reduce side effects antimicrobial agents and increase their therapeutic effectiveness.

The introduction of deficient microelements into the diet of animals is also a means of replacement therapy.

Symptomatic therapy includes cordial supplementation: 20% camphor oil, 3-5 ml intramuscularly; 10% caffeine solution 1-3 ml subcutaneously; cordiamine: 1.5-2 ml subcutaneously; valerian tincture: 2-3 ml per glass of water orally per calf.

.8 Disease prevention

Prevention of bronchopneumonia consists of a complex of organizational, economic, zoo-hygienic and veterinary-sanitary measures aimed at obtaining and raising strong, disease-resistant young animals. Special attention pay attention to creating optimal conditions for keeping and feeding breeding stock and young animals. Livestock premises must meet zoohygienic indicators approved by standards. In calf barns, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations should not exceed 5°C, relative humidity - 70%, air speed 0.1-0.3 m/sec., ammonia concentration mg/m and concentration of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide 5 mg/m each.

Among the measures to prevent colds, favorable conditions for keeping animals, as well as regular walks for young animals, are important. To avoid overheating of animals during the hot season, shady canopies are made. It is especially dangerous to give water to hot animals. cold water

Important In the system of measures to prevent the disease of animals with bronchopneumonia, there is the fight against dust in the air of livestock yards, walking areas, and the moistening of bulk feed before distribution. In the premises where young animals are kept, sanitary conditions must be observed, cleanliness must be systematically maintained, and disinfection must be carried out.

In animal feeding, agents are widely used that increase the body’s resistance (premixes containing vitamins and minerals).

V.M. Danilevsky noted the effectiveness of methods for the prevention of bronchopneumonia using aerosol treatment. For this purpose, he recommended the use of substances that disinfect the air in livestock buildings and sanitize the respiratory organs of animals. This is forest balm A in its pure form in concentration

3-0.5 g/m2 of room for 1-2 hours, iodotriethylene glycol based on

15-0.3 g of iodine per 1 m for 40 minutes, iodine triethylene glycol in combination with turpentine and lactic acid in the amount of 0.3 ml/m with an exposure of 40 minutes. For these purposes, use 3% hydrogen peroxide, 5% water solution chloramine B, sodium hypochloride containing 1.5-2% chlorine, 4% alkali solution.

Creating optimal conditions for feeding and keeping young animals, observing proper veterinary and sanitary rules ensures a reduction in diseases and high safety of young animals.

Bibliographic list of used literature

1. Abramov S.S. Non-communicable diseases, Harvest, 1983.

Anokhin B.M., Danilevsky V.M., Zarazin L.G., et al. Internal non-communicable diseases of agricultural animals, - M, Agropromizdat, 1991.

Bazhenov A.N., Davydov V.Ts., Efimov A.A., et al. Prevention of internal non-communicable diseases and treatment of cattle in industrial complexes, Leningrad, Agropromizdat, 1987.

Belopolsky V.A., Golovzin Yu.V. Immunological basis for the treatment of calves with bronchopneumonia., "Veterinary Medicine", No. 11, 1993.

Volkov G.K., Barannikov V.D. Problems of raising healthy young animals," Veterinary Science" No. 2, 1997.

Danilevsky V.M. and others. Recommendations for the prevention and treatment of bronchopneumonia in calves in specialized industrial complexes when raising and fattening young cattle and their economic efficiency, - M, Kolos, 1980.

Danilevsky V.M. Bronchopneumonia of calves: etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment, "Veterinary Medicine", No. 1, 1985.

Danilevsky V.M., Kondrashikh I.F., Korobov A.V., et al. Workshop on internal non-communicable diseases of animals-M, Kolos, 1992.

Denisenko V.N. Natural resistance of calves with bronchopneumonia, "Veterinary Medicine", No. 3, 1983.

Norms and rations for feeding farm animals. Reference manual - Ed.: Kalashnikov A.P., Kleimenov N.I., Bakanov V.N., etc. - M.

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Bronchopneumonia (bronchopneumonia)– an animal disease characterized by the development of an inflammatory process in the bronchi and alveoli with effusion of serous-mucosal exudate into the latter. There are acute, subacute and chronic bronchopneumonia, and depending on the origin - primary and secondary. All types of animals of all ages are affected, but more often young animals (see Diseases of young animals).

Etiology . Bronchopneumonia is a disease of a polyetiological nature. All etiological factors of the disease can be divided into 2 groups: 1. reducing the natural resistance of the body and 2. opportunistic bacteria and viruses.

Factors that reduce natural resistance include disturbances in keeping and feeding animals (unsatisfactory microclimate, insufficient content of macro- and microelements and vitamins in the diet, especially vitamin A).

Against the background of reduced resistance, the evolutionarily developed balance between the macroorganism and opportunistic microorganisms, viruses, mycoplasmas, the total number of species of which can exceed 60, is disrupted. Violation of this balance causes the occurrence of the disease.

Secondary bronchopneumonia can be a symptom or complicate the course of bronchopneumonia, PCVD, gastroenteritis in horses, diseases of the uterus, udder, PCH, dictyocaulosis in cattle, dictyocaulosis, mulleriosis, necrobacteriosis in sheep, plague, metastrongylosis, vitamin deficiency in pigs.

Symptoms and course . At the onset of the disease, body temperature rises by 1-1.5 0, however, later it may drop to normal. Remitting fever. Breathing is rapid, shallow, mixed shortness of breath. The cough is short, muffled, and painful in acute cases.

Nasal discharge is serous-mucosal, and in subacute and chronic forms it is mucopurulent and purulent. With percussion, tympanic sound is identified in the lesions, which later turns dull and dull, and with auscultation, bronchial breathing and fine- and medium-bubble rales are heard. In healthy areas, upon auscultation, harsh vesicular breathing is established. The functioning of the cardiac and digestive systems is disrupted.

The subacute and chronic form of the disease occurs with the same symptoms as the acute one, but less pronounced.

In acute and subacute forms, the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin in the blood decreases, and leukocytosis. The leukogram shows neutrophilia. In chronic bronchopneumonia, blood thickening is observed, accompanied by a relative increase in red blood cells and hemoglobin, leukocytosis with an increase in the number of lymphocytes.

With properly organized treatment, the acute form of the disease lasts 8-12 days, subacute 3-4 weeks, chronic - months and even years.

Diagnosis diagnosed on the basis of anamnesis, clinical manifestations, fluoroscopy, and laboratory tests.

Differential diagnosis . One should keep in mind lobar and symptomatic pneumonia in infectious and invasive diseases. (see Diseases of young animals).

Treatment . Greatest effect therapeutic measures provide in the initial stages of disease development. An indispensable condition for a favorable outcome in the treatment of patients is the elimination of the causes of the disease and the creation of optimal feeding and maintenance conditions.

Antimicrobials and sulfonamide drugs are used as antimicrobial agents after titrating them to the secreted microflora. Among antibiotics, you can use penicillin, novocillin, ampicillin, ampiox, gentamicin, and tetracycline, morphocycline, olimorphocycline, etc. according to the recommendations for use. Among other antimicrobial agents, it is effective to use -50 or 200, intramuscularly, 5 mg once a day for pigs, tilan - 10 mg, orally, 2 times a day. Among sulfonamide preparations, sulfadimizine, sulfadimethoxine, and sulfamonomethoxine are used. The combined use of antibiotics and sulfonamides is effective.

In subacute and chronic course antibiotics and soluble sulfonamides are indicated to be administered intratracheally, and in case of mass disease - by aerosol method (see Bronchopneumonia of young animals).

Good results in acute and subacute forms, they are obtained using novocaine blockades of the stellate ganglion and splanchnic nerves and sympathetic trunks according to Shakurov. The effectiveness of treatment increases with the use of physiotherapy (ultraviolet irradiation, air ionization). Mandatory inclusion in complex therapy symptomatic drugs (cardiac and digestive drugs).

To increase the natural resistance of the body, stimulants are used.

Prevention . Prevention of bronchopneumonia includes a complex of organizational, economic and special veterinary measures aimed at complying with zoohygienic standards for keeping and feeding animals, increasing the natural resistance of the body (see Bronchopneumonia of young animals).

Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation

Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Orenburg State Agrarian University"

Department of Anatomy, Pathanatomy

and histology

Course work

Topic: “Pathomorphological changes in catarrhal bronchopneumonia of cattle.”

The work was completed by: student of group 53,

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

and biotechnology

Stroikov Alexey Alexandrovich

Checked by: senior teacher

Matveev Oleg Anatolievich

Orenburg - 2007.

Bronchopneumonia (catarrhal pneumonia) – Bronchopneumonia - - - 3

Clinical and anatomical forms of pneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -4

Etiology of catarrhal bronchopneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9

Pathogenesis of catarrhal bronchopneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10

Symptoms of catarrhal bronchopneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -12

Pathomorphological changes in catarrhal bronchopneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -13

Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of catarrhal bronchopneumonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15

List of used literature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17

Analysis of a diagnosed case of disease

1. Bronchopneumonia (catarrhal pneumonia) – Bronchopneumonia

The disease is characterized by inflammation of the bronchi and alveoli, accompanied by the formation of catarrhal (mucous) exudate and filling the bronchi and alveoli with it. The pathological process has a lobular (focal) character. Initially, the bronchi and lobules of the lung are affected, after which inflammation can cover several lobules, segments and even lobes of the lungs, as a result of which the disease will be characterized as small-focal, large-focal or confluent pneumonia.

Bronchopneumonia is widespread among animals of all species, in all geographical areas, and especially in young animals during the periods of weaning, growing, and fattening. In large livestock farms and industrial complexes, especially if veterinary and sanitary rules for keeping animals are violated, the disease can become widespread, and the number of cases can reach 30-50%.

The diagnosis of catarrhal bronchopneumonia was made based on the medical history, etiological factors, clinical picture and results of a pathological autopsy.

2. Clinical and anatomical forms of pneumonia

Pneumonia is divided into lobular (limited, lobular), which include bronchopneumonia (catarrhal pneumonia), purulent (metastatic, characterized by involvement in the pathological process in the form of small foci of individual lobes of the lungs, or all lungs and lung abscess), hypostatic (congestive), mycotic (fungal), putrefactive (lung gangrene), atelectatic, aspiration, silicic (when the lungs are dusted with silicon dust), anthracose (when the lungs are dusted with coal dust), gasoline and some others, and lobar (spilled), which include croupous (fibrinous) pneumonia, contagious pleuropneumonia of horses, widespread pneumonia in cattle, etc. However, the most common are bronchopneumonia, accounting for more than 60% of all pulmonary diseases, as well as purulent, hypostatic, mycotic, putrefactive and lobar pneumonia.

Exudative pneumonia It can be serous, catarrhal, fibrinous, purulent, hemorrhagic, ichorous and mixed.

Serous pneumonia begins with exudation, which is expressed by inflammatory hyperemia, the phenomenon of serous exudation, when serous exudate (inflammatory edema) begins to leak from the walls of the capillaries into the lumen of the alveoli. Macroscopically, the lung tissue is compacted, red or pink in color, the pleura is smooth, and a slightly cloudy (opalescent) liquid flows from its surface. On microscopy, the alveoli are filled with turbid fluid, stained with eosin. pink color, with individual leukocytes and desquamated respiratory epithelial cells. Serous pneumonia is often the initial process of a number of other pneumonias, which later develop into lobar or catarrhal bronchopneumonia.

Fibrinous (lobar) pneumonia - severe pneumonia in farm animals. It is characterized by the sweating of fibrinous exudate into the lumen of the alveoli, which, upon leaving the lumen of the vessels, turns into dead fibrin protein. The process takes place in several stages: 1) stage of hyperemia - serous exudate sweats into the lumen of the alveoli from the capillaries. The affected areas of the lung are bluish-red in color, soft in consistency, and juicy when cut;

2) stage of red hepatization - fibrinogen-rich exudate containing leukocytes and erythrocytes sweats from the vessels into the lumen of the alveoli. The affected areas of the lung filled with such exudate acquire a dark red color (hemolysis of red blood cells) and a dense consistency similar to the consistency of the liver - red hepatization;

3) stage of gray hepatization - areas of the lung acquire a gray tint, since leukocytes that have undergone dystrophic changes begin to predominate in the exudate. The exudate accumulated in a large volume in the affected areas compresses the lung tissue, and the blood vessels also collapse;

4) resolution stage - leukocyte enzymes dissolve fibrin protein in the lumen of the alveoli and interstitial tissue. In this case, the lung tissue turns dark red or gray, becomes dense in consistency, and the pieces sink in water. When cut, a reddish liquid flows from the surface of the dark red areas.

The non-simultaneous development of stages in different lobules of the lung gives the inflamed areas a marble pattern specific to this type of inflammation. The resemblance to a marble pattern is enhanced by severe swelling of the interlobular septa, which in the form of grayish gelatinous stripes are especially pronounced in the lungs of cattle and pigs.

Histologically, in the stages of hyperemia and red hepatization, the alveoli are filled with exudate with fibrin threads, erythrocytes and leukocytes, the alveolar septa are dilated, and the capillaries are filled with blood. In the stage of gray hepatization, there are almost no red blood cells in the exudate, a lot of fibrin and leukocytes, the lumen of the capillaries is narrowed. In the interlobular connective tissue, a proliferation of reticulohistiocytic cells and fibroblasts is observed, most pronounced in the resolution stage. Even with a favorable outcome of inflammation, changes remain in the lungs, which are defined as induration and are characterized by thickening of the connective tissue, often with hyaline degeneration. The latter becomes homogeneous, with a small number of elongated nuclei.

The outcome of lobar pneumonia depends on the degree of filling of the alveoli and the associated circulatory disorders. Yellow hepatization may occur with the cleansing of the alveoli from fibrin and restoration of their function, or carnification (from the Latin sago - meat, fictio - formation), characterized by the germination of fibrin by connective tissue and blood vessels, as a result of which pneumonic areas resemble meat in color and consistency. This is observed when fibrin resorption is delayed, when the affected areas of the lungs become overgrown connective tissue, can no longer return to normal. The outcome of the form of sequestration (from the Latin secvestro - I separate) is associated with the necrosis of the inflamed areas, their separation from the surrounding tissue. This occurs in severe cases of lobar pneumonia, when fibrin accumulates in the alveoli in such quantities that blood circulation in them stops, and the lymphatic vessels often undergo thrombosis. Melting of the dead section of the lung occurs at its border with living tissue, and a connective tissue capsule often develops here. Upon opening, the sequester can be completely removed and the anatomical structures of the lung can be distinguished in it. The outcome of sequestration is sometimes observed in cattle with widespread pneumonia.

Thus, the pathological signs of lobar pneumonia are: extensive (lobar) lesions, hepatization (compaction) of the lung to the consistency of liver (hepatization), a dryish, granular cut surface.

Purulent inflammation is expressed by the formation of abscesses of varying sizes in the lungs (abscess pneumonia) or catarrhal-purulent diffuse inflammation. Abscesses in the lungs can form independently or as a complication of one or another inflammation. They come in different sizes and consist of accumulations of purulent bodies, colonies of pyogenic microorganisms and neutrophilic leukocytes in varying degrees of degeneration. Often abscesses are also enclosed in a capsule, which consists of an inner (pyogenic) and outer (fibrous connective tissue) layer.

Catarrhal-purulent (mixed) inflammation may begin with acute catarrhal bronchopneumonia and progress as a complication to purulent pneumonia. The leukocytes that accumulate over time undergo degenerative changes and turn into purulent bodies. Exudate rich in protein and cellular elements accumulates in the alveoli.

Hemorrhagic pneumonia characterized by the predominance of a large number of red blood cells in the exudate. It is observed in a number of infectious diseases (anthrax, swine fever), which occur with a violation of the integrity of the walls of blood vessels and the death of red blood cells. The intervening connective tissue is saturated with red blood cells and becomes dark red in color. Histologically, a mass of red blood cells is observed in the alveoli.

Ichorous (putrefactive) inflammation may be a complication of fibrinous inflammation with tissue necrosis. In the dead tissue, putrefactive microbes begin to multiply, part of the tissue melts with the formation of cavities - cavities with uneven, corroded edges.

Necrotizing (alterative) pneumonia observed in most animals with necrobacteriosis as a metastatic process of transfer of microbes to the lungs from infected wounds. In addition, necrotizing pneumonia can be the result of complications when toxic substances or foreign bodies enter the respiratory tract (aspiration pneumonia), as well as medical error or incorrect administration of medications. Initially, necrotizing pneumonia develops as serous-fibrinous inflammation, but the inflamed areas quickly undergo necrosis and only zones of serous-fibrinous inflammation remain around them. With necrotic inflammation, the lung is compacted, the surface is unevenly colored, and the pleura is rough. On a section, the lung tissue looks like foci of light gray or pale pink color. Histologically, at the border between dead and living tissue, a demarcation shaft is visible, consisting of an accumulation of leukocytes and histocytes.

The outcome of such pneumonia is usually fatal, and in the best cases, small necrotic areas are encapsulated.

Productive pneumonia more often observed as an outcome of catarrhal bronchopneumonia in diseases such as glanders and tuberculosis. In this case, the exudation processes almost stop, and proliferation becomes predominant. The cell proliferation consists of respiratory epithelium, lymphocytes and leukocytes. The lung has a dense consistency, is difficult to cut, its surface is lumpy, light gray or light pink in color.