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Practical classes: Biology. Animals. 8th grade [ed. ...

M.: VLADOS

The proposed study guide contains a variety of tasks for independent work students to comprehend and consolidate zoological knowledge and skills acquired through the study of biology. The content of the tasks corresponds educational standards second generation, adopted by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. The tasks involve working with living or fixed natural objects, illustrations, tests and other materials, and also include crosswords and teawords for students using additional literature on zoology.

Complex stomach of mammals 127 Phylum Chordata Task 6. Look at the figure. 67. Write what are the features of reproduction and care for offspring in mammals. Why do the mammary glands of nutria open high on the sides of the abdominal part of the body?

Preview: Biology. Animals. Practical lessons. 8th grade school manual (1).pdf (0.1 Mb)

INFLUENCE OF THE RATIO OF PROTEIN AND NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN IN THE DIETION...

ALL-UNION RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

The task is to study the effect of diets with different ratios of protein and non-protein nitrogen in sheep on: -the state of digestive processes; - digestibility nutrients stern; - transformation of nitrogenous substances in the stomach and intestines; - exchange of amino acids and sulfur in the gastrointestinal tract.

71 2. Metabolism of nitrogenous substances in the digestive canal and the use of nitrogen by periods of the experiment. During the period of the total nitrogen in the feed, after passing through the complex stomach, protein nitrogen decreased by 22%, and non-protein nitrogen increased by 47%.

Preview: INFLUENCE OF THE RATIO OF PROTEIN AND NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN IN THE DIETS ON THE PROCESSES OF NUTRIENT ASSUMATION AND USE IN RUMINANTS.pdf (0.0 Mb)

DIGESTION PROCESSES AND NUTRIENT ABSORPTION DURING...

The main goal of the study was a comprehensive comparative study of the influence of diets with different levels components, fiber on the digestive processes and digestibility of nutrients in ruminants.

At the same time, the flow of endogenous nitrogen into the complex stomach in the first period was mainly due to protein and non-protein nitrogen in the digestive system. In both periods, an equal number of poets entered the kizechkis and were absorbed. nitrogen.

Preview: DIGESTION PROCESSES AND NUTRIENT ASSUMPTION WITH DIFFERENT COMPOSITION OF RAW FIBER IN RUMINANT ANIMALS.pdf (0.0 Mb)

USE OF CELLOBACTERIN IN CALVES FEEDING ABSTRACT...

ALL-UNION ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The purpose of the work is to study the possibility of using cellobacterin in the practice of feeding calves.

Action microbial preparation was aimed at hydrolyzing non-protein nitrogen sources. The addition of cellobacterin to the diet was accompanied by additional supplies of non-protein nitrogen into the complex stomach due to endogenous fractions.

Preview: USE OF CELLOBACTERIN IN CALVES FEEDING.pdf (0.0 Mb)

EXPERIENCE IN IMPROVING MONGOLIAN CATTLE...

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

The main object of our research is young purebred Mongolian cattle and first-generation young animals obtained from crossing Kazakh white-headed and Mongolian breeds

Development of internal organs in experimental animals. ^ 1* weight and size of internal organs. In crossbreeds of the first generation, the “entirely complex stomach (especially the rumen) is characterized by “relatively greater development. Compared to the crossbred”” We have found...

Preview: EXPERIENCE OF IMPROVEMENT OF MONGOLIAN CATTLE BY KAZAKH WHITE-HEADED IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC.pdf (0.0 Mb)

ON AGE MORPHOLOGY AND HISTOCHEMISTRY OF THE OROPHYNARY ORGANS, ...

OMSK STATE VETERINARY INSTITUTE

In order to increase their productivity. The work of P. P. Pavlov and students of his school proved that in the organs of the anterior section of the digestive tract there is a trigger, which has an important reflex effect on the motor, secretory and absorption functions of subsequent sections of the digestive tube.

The complex stomach in embryos of this age has the appearance of a spindle-shaped thickening of the digestive tube following the esophagus.

Preview: ON THE AGE MORPHOLOGY AND HISTOCHEMISTRY OF ORGANS OF THE OROPHARYNX, ESOPHAGUS AND TREATSTOMACHES IN FETAL CATTLE RED STEPPE BREED.pdf (0.0 Mb)

REGIONAL FEATURES OF DIGESTION IN THE RUME OF LARGE...

UKRAINIAN ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY

As a result of research and experiments, data were obtained indicating different levels of fermentation processes in different areas of the scar. It has been established that the rate of formation of metabolites in the lower, intermediate and upper layers of the contents is also not the same: the highest is in the lower layer and the lowest in the upper. The rate of formation of these products varies significantly during the day and depends on the length of time that has passed since the next feeding of the animals.

The dissertation can be found in the library of the academy for 10 days of cattle is their complex stomach, which differs from the stomach of other animal species not only in anatomical but histological structure, but also originality...

Preview: REGIONAL FEATURES OF DIGESTION IN THE RUME OF CATTLE WHEN FEEDING DIFFERENT RATIONS.pdf (0.0 Mb)

INFLUENCE OF TREPEL (ZEOLITE TUFA OF THE ZIKEEVSKY DEPOSIT...

ALL-UNION RESEARCH INSTITUTE ANIMAL

The purpose of the research was to study the effect of tripoli (zeolite tuff from the Zikeevskoye deposit in the Kaluga region) on the processes of gastrointestinal digestion and the productivity of fattened bulls

And in combination with urea, a higher intake was observed. : ". "flow" of endogenous nitrogen" into the complex stomach and the most effective use - -..; d. the name of nitrogenous substances, t"^"" "Ч Vv" "-;-/ ."", ... :L .__:!, ;-" 3.6.

Preview: THE INFLUENCE OF TREPEL (ZEOLITE TUFF OF THE ZIKEEVSKY DEPOSIT, KALUGA REGION) ON THE PROCESSES OF GASTROINTESTINAL DIGESTION IN FATTLING CARES.pdf (0.0 Mb)

REGULARITIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CALVES RAISED ON...

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

The problem of saving components milk by using non-food products and, in particular, feed yeast to feed calves is extremely relevant and requires further study. Research is needed to develop this problem in more detail; aimed at determining the extent and possible timing of replacing dairy products with yeast; digestibility and digestibility of yeast, identifying their effective combinations with other feeds:

At this age, calves have not yet developed a complex stomach and identification functionality digestive system when fed instead of milk with the studied feed mixture is of particular interest.

Preview: REGULARITIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CALVES RAISED ON MODERATE COUNTIES WITH WHOLE MILK WITHOUT REFRONT USING HYDROLYSIS YEAST.pdf (0.0 Mb)

Biological basis of cattle productivity

The publication examines issues of origin, constitution, exterior, interior, biological foundations of reproduction, growth, development, meat and dairy productivity of cattle, and the influence of ethological factors on productivity. The textbook is intended for masters in the field of study “Animal Science”, graduate students in the field of study “Private Animal Science, Technology of Production of Livestock Products”. The book can be used by specialists of agricultural enterprises.

7 41.0 13.2 18.6 Cattle due to their biological characteristics (complex stomach and specific gastric digestion) is able to consume and make good use of large...

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PHYSIOLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION OF METHODS FOR INCREASING ENERGY...

ALL-RUSSIAN STATE RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The purpose of these studies was: 1. Study of the correlative dependencies of the indicators of the processes of digestion and use of nutrients by ruminant animals on different types of feeding, the ratio of concentrated and bulk feeds. 2. Physiological basis assessing the energy and protein nutritional value of diets based on the nutrients consumed. 3. Study of factors determining the regulation of feed consumption. 4. Physiological basis for the shift of digestion of high-value energy and protein substrates into the small intestine with regulation amino acid composition the latter.

According to our data, the digestibility of lignin was 28.535, and up to a quarter of it decomposed in the large intestine. complex stomach, where about 6035 neutral, acid-detergent fiber and hemicellulose were digested from what was consumed...

Preview: PHYSIOLOGICAL RATIONALE FOR METHODS OF INCREASING ENERGY AND PROTEIN SUPPLY OF LACTATING COWS AND YOUNG CATTLE.pdf (0.0 Mb)

Theoretical foundations of livestock production...

RIO PGSHA

The textbook summarizes biological and economic features farm animals of various types. The characteristics of their productive qualities, systems and methods of maintenance are given. Issues of reproduction, breeding, feeding of farm animals, considered technologies for the production of raw materials and livestock products are outlined.

The complex stomach of ruminants is necessary for thorough processing of coarse, indigestible feed with high content fiber.

Preview: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION PRODUCTION.pdf (0.9 Mb)

No. 6 [Science and life, 2012]

A popular science magazine of a wide profile for family reading and self-education. Published since 1890.

The fact is that the complex stomach of cows is adapted for eating grass, and they are fed corn grain and silage - it’s cheaper, which causes heartburn in cows. “Science and Life” No. 6, 2012. 97 

Preview: Science and Life No. 6 2013.pdf (0.8 Mb)

Educational and training tasks in biology (USE): a manual for...

Complex stomach of ruminants: 1) 3 sections 2) 5 sections 3) 4 sections 4) 6 sections A23.

Preview: Educational and training assignments in biology (USE) manual for students of preparatory courses.pdf (4.3 Mb)

Natural sorbents in mixed feed for dairy cattle: ...

RIC SSAA

The monograph discusses the use of natural sorbents from various deposits in feed for dairy cattle. Information is presented on the effect of feeding compound feeds, protein-mineral complexes, premixes on metabolism, growth energy of young cattle, and milk productivity of cows. An assessment is made of the effectiveness and feasibility of using zeolite tuffs from various deposits in dairy cattle diets. The monograph is intended for scientists, managers and specialists Agriculture, graduate students and students of agricultural universities.

Thus, when tripoli was introduced into the diets of fattened bulls separately and in combination with urea, a higher supply of endogenous nitrogen into the complex stomach and the most efficient use of nitrogenous substances were observed.

Preview: Natural sorbents in compound feeds for dairy cattle monograph.pdf (0.5 Mb)

Morphological aspects of digestion in small cattle.

FSBEI HPE Orenburg State Agrarian University

Approved by the Educational and Methodological Association of Higher Education educational institutions Russian Federation by education in the field of animal science and veterinary medicine as teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the field of training (specialty) 111801 Veterinary Science (qualification (degree) “specialist”) and field of study (specialty) 111100 Animal Science (qualification (degree) “Bachelor”).

Parts of the stomach. The stomach is a hollow muscular organ. It distinguishes:

1) top part located above the cardia - the dome of the stomach (fornix);

2) the middle cylindrical part, limited along the lesser curvature at the top by the cardia, and at the bottom by the angle stomach, body stomach (corpus);

3) the lowest located part - sinus;

4) to the right of it is the last part of the stomach - the pylorus, consisting of the canal (canalis pyloricus) and the pylorus itself (pylorus).

The dome, body and sinus of the stomach are located more vertically, the pyloric part is more horizontal. Due to the fact that the digestion and grinding of food occurs in the vertical part of the stomach, it is called the digestive sac (saccus digestorius), and the horizontal part is called the excretory canal (canalis egestcrius).

The walls of the stomach consist of an outer layer - the serous membrane, a middle layer - the muscular layer and an inner layer - the mucous membrane.

Serosa represents part of the peritoneum, it covers the stomach on all sides, except narrow stripes on its crooks, and will fall on it with neighboring organs, forming at the site of these transitions ligamentous apparatus stomach.

Muscular layer of the stomach has a complex structure and consists of smooth muscles arranged in three layers. The outer layer is formed by longitudinal fibers, the middle layer by circular ones; both layers thicken at the pylorus, forming here the so-called sphincter or pyloric sphincter (sphincter pylori). The inner layer consists of oblique fibers.

Stomach mucosa It is loosely connected with its muscular wall, which is why when it contracts, it falls into folds, very whimsically located and having a varied direction. The folds of the mucosa acquire particular importance during x-ray examination from the point of view of studying the “relief of the gastric mucosa”, which changes under pathological conditions. The entire mucous membrane of the stomach is covered with a kind of columnar epithelium. Millions of excretory ducts of specific tubular glands open into it. The glands in different parts of the stomach have different structures. The glands of the fundus and body of the stomach consist of main cells (secreting enzyme) and parietal cells (secreting hydrochloric acid), The glands of the pyloric part are devoid of parietal cells.

The stomach is located mainly in the left hypochondrium and in the epigastric region, with five-sixths of it lying to the left of midline and only the gateway part and the small area adjacent to it lie to the right of it. The cardia of the stomach lies under the diaphragm almost along the midline at the level of the X-XI thoracic vertebrae; its dome or bottom is adjacent to the dome of the diaphragm, reaching almost to the height of the fourth intercostal space. The inlet part of the stomach, which forms a direct continuation of the esophagus, fixed rather tightly to the diaphragm by connective tissue cords, is the most immobile part; The pyloric part of the stomach is weaker strengthened; it allows the pylorus to move a distance of 2-7 cm from right to left, down and up. The most mobile part of the stomach is the greater curvature. The lower border of the stomach along its greater curvature with medium degree filling is projected onto the anterior abdominal wall in men 3-4 cm, in women 1-2 cm above the navel.

Shape and position of the stomach change under the influence of a number of reasons, such as the degree of filling of the stomach, its tone, the state of intra-abdominal pressure, the state of neighboring organs, the degree of filling of the intestines, and body position. In addition, they depend on the state of general nutrition, on the tone of the vegetative nervous system and human constitution.

Usually normal people There are two main forms of the stomach: the first, which looks like a fishhook or siphon, and the second, which resembles a bull's horn. To these forms of a normal stomach should be added an elongated stomach. The indicated forms of the stomach are characteristic of certain constitutional types: the horn-shaped form is more common in people with a wide chest, in hypersthenics; an elongated stomach occurs with an asthenic constitution and is usually associated with prolapse of other organs abdominal cavity; a stomach in the form of a “hook” is found mostly in normosthenic people.

Blood supply and innervation of the stomach. The stomach is fed with blood from three branches of the celiac artery (art. coeliaca). The venous network of the stomach is one of the roots of the portal system.

The stomach has its own autonomous nervous apparatus: the Auerbach plexus, located among the layers of the muscular layer, and the Meissner plexus, located in the submucosal layer. In addition, it receives nerve fibers from the sympathetic and vagus nerves.

Functions of the stomach. In the vertical section of the stomach (saccus digestorius), food masses are subjected to chemical treatment gastric juice and mechanical crushing by movements of the walls of the stomach. Its horizontal section (canalis egestorius) performs mainly the mechanical function of a motor pumping food into the intestines, and probably has absorptive capacity.

Thus, the stomach has three main functions: secretory, motor and absorptive. In addition, two more of its functions have recently been identified and studied - excretory and associated with hematopoiesis.

Secretory function of the stomach. The glands of the fundic part of the stomach secrete gastric juice with a sharply acidic reaction, and the glands of the pyloric part - an alkaline reaction. Pure gastric juice is a colorless, transparent or slightly opalescent acidic liquid containing 0.4-0.5% hydrochloric acid and two enzymes - pepsin and chymosin, or rennet. The actual acidity of the juice corresponds to pH = 1.7. The amount of pure gastric juice secreted per day ranges from 1.5 to 2 liters. Pepsin, secreted by the main cells of the gastric glands, exhibits its activity only in acidic environment, breaking down food protein through hydrolysis to the peptone stage; Its effect on connective and elastic tissues is especially significant. The stomach on an empty stomach does not contain gastric juice. The presence of more than 50 cm3 of acidic contents in the stomach on an empty stomach should in any case be considered a pathological phenomenon. Gastric juice begins to separate under the influence of impulses from the central nervous system. This is the first phase of the secretory act, the so-called psychic or incendiary juice. Further separation occurs under the influence of irritations from food digestion products, metabolic products and special substances that stimulate secretion, the so-called secretins; this is the second, chemical phase of secretion.

One of the normal components of gastric juice is mucus. Its main significance is to protect the gastric mucosa from the effects of harmful agents; one might also think that it neutralizes excess acid.

Motor function of the stomach consists of peristole and peristalsis. Peristole is the ability of the stomach, thanks to the constant tonic tension of its muscles, to embrace the food that has entered it, regardless of its quantity. Peristalsis is a periodic wave-like contraction of the muscles of the stomach, especially pronounced in its pyloric part.

The opening and closing of the pyloric sphincter is regulated by the acidity of the gastric contents. As soon as a portion of food has entered the duodenum, immediately, due to the acid reflex from the intestinal mucosa, the pyloric sphincter is clamped, and the entire pyloric part relaxes; thanks to this, a new portion of the stomach contents enters it, which remains here until the portion that enters the intestine is neutralized and moves further into the small intestines.

Absorption function of the stomach is very weakly expressed, therefore of great importance does not have. Water and fats are not absorbed at all. Sugar, albumose, peptones and salts are absorbed in small quantities. Alcohol and some medications, such as strychnine, chloral hydrate, and iodine, are well absorbed.

Excretory function is important in general metabolism” and in particular in chloride metabolism. It is carried out not by the entire surface of the stomach, but mainly by the pyloric part, which plays a particularly active role in the release of various substances from the circulatory system.

Function of the stomach that stimulates hematopoiesis, is associated with the production in it special substance - internal factor Castle. This substance in itself is inactive, but when it acts on certain types of food (mainly meat and eggs), a new substance is formed, which is called hemopoietin and which is absolutely necessary for normal erythropoiesis. With its deficiency or absence, this process is disrupted and develops special shape anemia - the so-called pernicious anemia.

Secretory function disorders. If under physiological conditions the secretory function of the stomach is very labile and the numbers expressing normal secretion fluctuate within a fairly wide range, then under pathological conditions there are significantly greater deviations in the direction of reducing the acidity (hypaciditas or subaciditas) of the gastric contents up to complete absence it contains free hydrochloric acid (anaciditas), and in the direction of a significant increase in acidity (hyperaciditas or superaciditas). In addition to reducing acidity, under pathological conditions the content of gastric juice enzymes may also decrease until they completely disappear - achylia gastrica; the amount of mucus changes; finally, the amount of gastric juice itself may change, regardless of the percentage of hydrochloric acid in it (hypersecretio, hyposecretio).

Decreased function of the secretory apparatus. With a decrease in secretion and especially with achylia, a number of processes and functions are disrupted: mechanical and chemical changes in food in the stomach (especially connective tissue), the function of the pylorus (due to loss of the acid reflex) and the motor ability of the stomach, the stimulating effect of hydrochloric acid on the secretion of the pancreas, bactericidal effect of gastric juice (HC1) on gastric and intestinal contents.

Thus, the entry of insufficiently crushed, chemically and physiologically unprepared food from the stomach into the intestines shifts all the burden onto the latter. digestive work. Fermentation and putrefaction processes easily occur in the intestines, followed by diarrhea (gastrogenic diarrhea), and toxic products of protein breakdown appear, which, when absorbed, adversely affect the liver. In those cases when achylia is accompanied by insufficient production or absence of hematopoietic factors of gastric juice, changes are developing from hematopoietic organs and blood.

Increased secretory function. Increased activity of the secretory apparatus of the stomach can be expressed both in an increase in the acidity of gastric juice (hyperaciditas) and in a general increase in secretion (hypersecretio), but most often both occur simultaneously.

Much increased acidity sometimes occurs in completely healthy people: in this case we're talking about about the constitutional state of the stomach, about its physiologically enhanced reaction to irritation. In other cases, this increased secretion is a pathological reaction to food and other irritations: reflex due to diseases of other abdominal organs ( chronic appendicitis, chronic constipation); inflammatory, especially with ulcers in the pyloric part and in the duodenum; abuse of spices and tobacco smoking; with an increase in the tone of the parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system.

Enzyme secretion disorders. The content of enzymes in gastric juice does not always change in parallel with the release of hydrochloric acid, but in the absence of free hydrochloric acid, as a rule, pepsin (Achilia) is also absent.

The secretion of Castle factor is also not directly related to the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, since in most cases of gastric achylia there is no disturbance in its production. But still, there is a known relationship between the external secretion of the stomach and this internal secretion, since a deficiency or absence of Castle factor in the stomach is observed, as a rule, with achylia, and an excess of it with increased secretion of the stomach.

Movement disorders. In accordance with the two sides of the motor function of the stomach - peristole and peristalsis - pathological disorder it can be twofold: on the one hand, a change in the tone of the gastric wall in the form of a decrease in it (hypotension and atony) or an increase (hypertension and spasms), on the other hand, a violation of the evacuation function of the stomach.

Atony (or hypotension) of the stomach is most often observed in connection with congenital muscle insufficiency in individuals with a pronounced asthenic constitution of the body, as a result of which it is often combined with prolapse of the stomach or general ptosis of the viscera. It can also develop with a temporary weakening of the general tone of the body, for example after acute infectious diseases (typhoid fever), with chronic infections(tuberculosis), with malnutrition, etc. Gastric atony results in a longer stay of food in the stomach - When higher degrees her food stagnates in the stomach for a long time, which leads to its expansion (gastrectasia). Severe atony and dilatation of the stomach develop with narrowing of the pylorus.

Gastric hypertension observed both with increased general excitability of the autonomic nervous system and with increased excitability of the nervous devices of the stomach itself. A general hypertensive state of the stomach (gastrospasm) is the result of a local organic disease (peptic ulcer, pyloric gastritis), reflex irritation (with cholecystitis, appendicitis, etc.) or some chronic poisoning, for example lead, nicotine.

Much more often there is local hypertension of the stomach and its spasms. According to their localization, they can occupy a limited area, manifesting themselves as a finger-like retraction into the greater or lesser curvature, but they can also be expressed over a large area, in the form of a circular constriction of the entire stomach. In this case, the stomach is divided into two parts and takes on an hourglass shape, thus reminiscent of its usual deformation due to severe scar changes. Special attention deserve spastic phenomena in the area of the pylorus - pylorospasm.

Often, simultaneously with an increase in the tone of the gastric wall, there is also an increase in peristalsis, expressed either in the acceleration of the rhythm of peristaltic waves, or in their deepening, and sometimes in both at the same time. This type of peristalsis is characteristic, for example, of a significant obstruction at the exit from the stomach when the pylorus narrows.

Pyloric narrowing most often appears due to a stomach ulcer, but can also be due to other reasons (for example, tumor, spastic contractions of the pylorus). Depending on the degree of narrowing, more or less pronounced hypertrophy of the walls of the stomach develops; the narrowing can be overcome to some extent by such an increase in motor force. Pyloric stenosis, overcome by compensatory hypertrophy, so that the period of gastric emptying is not disrupted, is called compensated narrowing of the pylorus. Those cases of narrowing in which the stomach loses the ability to completely empty are called decompensated.

Due to the fact that the main functions of the stomach - secretory and motor - are closely connected in one organ, the pathological deviations of the motor and secretory functions of the stomach described by us should not be considered independently of each other. Observed close interaction their disorders. So, for example, pylorospasm, causing stagnation of food in the stomach, causes an increase in the secretion and acidity of gastric juice, which in turn increases spastic phenomena on the part of the pylorus; on the contrary, the absence of hydrochloric acid - achylia - is usually accompanied by increased motor function and accelerated emptying of the stomach due to the fact that the pylorus remains open all the time.

Digestion- an indispensable process. As a result of the activity of the digestive system, a person receives the necessary chemical substances and energy for life.

The grinding of food occurs in the stomach. As a result of chemical reactions, food decomposes, and it becomes possible to extract the simplest components from it and absorb them into the blood. It all starts with a person chewing food, which then goes down into the stomach. The opening through which food passes from the esophagus to the stomach is called the cardia. The muscles in the cardia area work like a gateway, i.e. food only goes in one direction.

During the process of digesting food, the stomach is filled with gastric juice by more than half. Food falls into this liquid and begins to digest there. The lower part of the stomach is not so spacious. The end of the stomach is somewhat narrowed and is in a horizontal position. This part of the stomach is called the pylorus.

As already mentioned, in the pyloric part the stomach narrows and becomes like a tube. Next is the opening leading to the duodenum. The pyloric muscles act like a valve. They push semi-digested food into the intestines, preventing food from passing back.

The stomach is surrounded by muscles - longitudinal, circular and oblique. Its inner part is called body of the stomach, while the inside of the stomach is lined with mucous membrane. The stomach needs muscles to move food from the cardia to the exit from the stomach. The muscle movements are wave-like, and along the way they mix food with gastric juice, compress the food and force it to grind into even smaller pieces. A slurry is formed, almost liquid. This product of the stomach is called chyme.

Food is ground in the stomach not only due to muscles, but also due to chemistry - in the stomach food is exposed to strong acid - gastric juice. Stomach acid appears in the stomach itself (it is secreted by cells on the inner surface of the stomach). In addition, the enzyme is produced pepsin and hydrochloric acid. All three substances help digest incoming food and break it down into parts.

Stomach acid is so strong that it can burn through a carpet or digest a piece of iron (such as a razor blade). Without this property, gastric juice would not cope with ordinary tasks, because... Digesting proteins is very difficult. It is also important that he the stomach is made of protein. Why then does the process of digestion not concern the stomach itself? The secret lies in the properties of the stomach walls. They are uneven and consist of jagged zigzag folds. And in the depths of these folds there are special cells that can protect the stomach from its own juice. These cells are capable of producing mucus, which coats the stomach, forming the so-called mucous membrane. It turns out that two completely opposite groups of cells work in the stomach - some secrete strong acid, others secrete the opposite substance “mucus” (mucus that protects against acids).

The mucous membrane protects not only from acid, but also from microbes. Viruses cannot enter the body through food thanks to amazing properties mucus. Another function of this mucus is to facilitate the movement of food to the bottom of the stomach. Thanks to the cardia, stomach acid does not penetrate higher (into the esophagus). If there were no such protection, the esophagus would quickly become destroyed (burnt by acid), because the esophagus does not have protection in the form of mucus.

Gastritis and ulcers appear only when the thickness of the mucus layer becomes too thin. As a result, wounds appear on the walls - the stomach begins to digest itself. Only the simultaneous work of mucus and acid in the stomach makes the digestion process possible. And this one complex mechanism works for a person from the moment of his birth until his last days.

Contents of the article:

To effectively treat gastrointestinal diseases, it is necessary to accurately know the structure of the stomach. The stomach is the extension that forms at the bottom of the esophagus. This is a sac-like hollow organ that is located in the peritoneum, the main part is on the left. Its inner layer is covered with folds, thanks to which the organ can stretch and accommodate more food.

What does it consist of?

The structure of the human stomach is not too complex; it has only a few sections:

Bottom or vault. Despite its name, it is located at the top.
Cardinal part. She was named that way because... it is located next to the heart muscle. This is a kind of border that separates the esophagus and stomach. There is a special area here muscle fibers, called pulp. It is necessary to prevent food from the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus.
Body. This is the largest part of the organ. Food that has been eaten by a person comes here and waits for digestion. The body has two curvatures, lower and upper.
The pyloric region is located below the other parts. This is where this organ ends and the small intestine begins. Its function is to transport the contents of the stomach to the duodenum.
Detailed diagram of this organ will allow you to visually familiarize yourself with all the sections; it depicts the human stomach, its structure, shows how many sections there are and their location.

Wall structure

Despite the fact that this organ has only a few sections, the anatomical structure of the stomach is much more complex. So, its wall consists of three layers:

Muscular membrane. It is necessary for the organ to actively contract and move the bolus of food. She has outer layer, consisting of rectus muscles; medium, it is formed by the circular muscles (the valve that prevents food from coming back out, called the sphincter); and internal, consisting of oblique muscles. They are responsible for the shape of this body.
Serous layer. It is separated from the previous layer by an interlayer. It supplies the human stomach nerve endings. Also necessary for its nutrition. This layer envelops the entire organ and gives it one shape or another. This is where they are located blood vessels. Nerve plexuses can be found in this part.
Slime layer. Folds form here, which, when straightened, can increase the area of the stomach. The mucous layer contains gastric fields.

Shape and location

The stomach is located behind the ribs, but a small part of it, about ¼, is in the epigastric region. An empty and a full organ does not come into contact with the peritoneum, there is between them colon. If it is full, it can go down to the navel. What is its volume? If it is empty, then its volume is no more than 0.5 liters, and after lunch or dinner it can increase to 1 liter. If a person eats a lot at once, the walls of the stomach stretch and can accommodate up to 4 liters of food. The length of an empty organ is about 18-20 cm, and a full one is from 22 to 26 cm.

Anatomy is an exact science, but some values in it are not constant, for example, such as the shape of the stomach. It can be different, it depends on how full it is with food or gases, on the person’s physique and many other factors. It can be sickle-shaped, pear-shaped, sac-shaped, etc.

The structure of a child's stomach differs from that of an adult. Babies are born with a small organ shaped like a ball. It holds no more than 35 ml of milk. The child grows, his stomach gradually stretches out, and by the age of one year it becomes oblong. Its volume also increases. If a one-year-old child can hold up to 350 ml of food, then at 7 years old his organ can hold up to 1 liter, like that of an adult.

Glands

Considering internal structure of this organ, one cannot fail to mention the glands that play important role during the digestion process. They consist of two parts. In the first, narrow one, chemical substances are formed, and in the second, wide one, they are removed out through the excretory ducts. The location of the gastric glands may vary. Let's tell you more about them.

They are in different parts stomach and perform their functions.

Cardinal. Can be found at the entrance to the stomach. Their secretion is necessary to soften food and prepare it for digestion.
Own. There are several types of them. The main ones are needed to break down and digest proteins, including milk. Mucous membranes, as the name implies, produce mucus. There are also parietal glands that produce hydrochloric acid.

Pyloric. They are located near the colon. They secrete mucous cells that form, as the name suggests, mucus. It is needed to partially remove hydrochloric acid and dilute stomach juice. They also include endocrine glands. They are necessary for normal operation stomach.

Functions

We figured out what the stomach is, its structure, and we will also find out its functions. Even children know that it is necessary for digesting food. However, this is too general; in fact, this organ has many functions:

The stomach stores food.
It is necessary to produce gastric juice.
Mixes food and delivers it to the small intestine.
If a person has eaten harmful substances or pathogenic microorganisms have entered him, he gets rid of them by provoking vomiting.
Some hormones are produced here, such as gastrin and histamine.

It absorbs amino acids, glucose, water, and breaks down fats.

How does it work

How does the human digestive system work? Of course it's very difficult process, which I could talk about for a long time. We will briefly describe what happens after eating.

Food enters the stomach

In the mouth, food is chewed and moistened, turning into a homogeneous mass resembling gruel. Salivary glands contain enzymes that break down carbohydrates, some of them immediately go into the blood. The bulk of food moves through the esophagus to the stomach, where it remains for 1-2 hours. The pyloric sphincter closes to retain food.

The food, which has turned into mush, constantly moves back and forth, and then begins to flow into the small intestine. This does not happen immediately, but within 1-5 hours, it goes away in small portions. It is in the small intestine that the bulk of fats, proteins and carbohydrates are digested. The small intestine begins with the duodenum. It receives the contents of the stomach, as well as the secretion products of the digestive glands: bile duct, pancreas, etc. This is where food is digested, and the remaining parts of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of nutrients. The digestive process is completed in the large intestine.

This brief explanation shows that the stomach is unique in its structure and functions. People have not yet managed to recreate such a complex system. But scientists were able to study the structure of the human body and understand the intricacies of work digestive tract, so now it is possible to treat many gastrointestinal diseases and carry out their prevention.

Inflammation of the appendix is characterized by quite general symptoms. These include abdominal pain, fever and nausea. It is quite difficult to determine appendicitis from them. This is why doctors use a diagnostic method such as palpation. This procedure allows you to accurately determine inflammation of the appendix at the earliest stages, which allows you to avoid complications.

Purpose of the procedure

Palpation is used at the slightest suspicion of appendicitis. When performing it, the doctor notes painful sensations in the patient, checks the overhang of the anterior wall of the rectum. Palpation of the abdomen should be done with caution, without making sudden movements or pressure. It is important to take into account that only a qualified doctor can palpate and only if a disease is suspected.

Rules for palpation for appendicitis

The procedure must be carried out on an empty stomach.

Before starting the procedure, the patient must take a supine position. Your arms can be extended along your body or folded across your chest. The doctor’s palms should be warm, since otherwise, when touched, the person’s abdominal muscles will involuntarily tense; such a reaction will significantly interfere with the diagnosis. It is advisable to begin palpation from areas that are located at some distance from the location of the appendix. Compliance with this rule is especially important in the case of children. So, if you press on a place with maximum pain, then subconsciously a fear of further actions the doctors. As a result, this will lead to muscle tension.

Gradually moving forward, you need to determine the place where the pain is felt the most. This should be done only with the help of light, superficial palpation. It must be carried out with both hands, moving symmetrically on both sides of the abdomen. This will help distinguish involuntary contractions from intentional ones. So, if the muscles tensed on only one side, this happened involuntarily. Otherwise, the compression is intentional. Once the location has been determined, deeper palpation should begin. It is carried out using both hands: the doctor places the right one on the patient’s lower back, and palpates with the left one. If the patient has a defensive reaction in the form of compression of the abdominal muscles, he should bend his knees. This position will help the patient relax and allow the doctor to palpate effectively. In addition, deep palpation helps determine the presence of compactions in the abdominal cavity.

When performing palpation, you need to constantly ask the patient about his sensations and the degree of pain. This is the only way to determine exactly where it hurts the most. To diagnose " acute inflammation appendix" is possible only if the pain has a clear localization, and if, when pressing in the right iliac region, tension in the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall is felt.

Norm and pathology

The appendix normally does not provoke pain upon palpation.

If there is no inflammation of the appendix, then it can be felt only in 10% of patients. If you press harder, then normally it feels like a cylinder with a maximum diameter of 1.5 cm. The vermiform appendix normally does not change density when pressed and does not rumble. Also, in the absence of disease, it is difficult to fix it in a specific position. If the appendix hurts, has a dense consistency and does not move in the abdominal cavity, this indicates the presence of a disease. However, this parameter is practically not used when diagnosing inflammation of the appendix. This is due to the difficulty of palpating the appendix due to tension in the abdominal muscles.

Symptoms that appear

Appendicitis, like other diseases, is characterized by several types of symptoms that manifest themselves if you press on the abdomen. If the main signs are present, the doctor can confidently make a diagnosis without additional examinations and tests. Other symptoms are secondary. Their presence is checked only if the main signs are absent or are weakly expressed. Let's consider how these groups of signs manifest themselves in appendicitis.

Main signs

The main signs that can be identified during palpation include:

Having the exact location of maximum pain.
Contraction of the abdominal muscles in the right iliac region, which occurs involuntarily.

Sharp pain when pressing on McBurney's point indicates the presence of inflammation.

Most intense pain felt at the base of the appendix. There the vermiform appendix connects to the intestine, and this place is stable, that is, it does not change its position. This point is named after McBurney. If it is she who hurts, then the doctor has the right to diagnose “acute inflammation of the appendix.” Even if there are no signs of illness such as nausea, fever and loss of appetite, palpation data is sufficient for diagnosis. Difficulty can only arise in the early stages of the disease, when the appendix is not enlarged and difficult to palpate. Then it is necessary to investigate secondary symptoms.

Minor signs

The Shchetkin-Blumberg sign can be classified as secondary. To identify it during palpation, the doctor applies shallow pressure on the abdomen, after which he sharply removes his fingers. If the patient feels pain during release, then the sign is positive. The next indicator of the disease is Sitkovsky's symptom. To detect it, the patient lies down on left side body or rolls over onto it. If pain is present during these actions, the symptom is confirmed.

If light tapping on the right side of the abdomen provokes pain, this may be a sign of appendicitis.

The next one is Obraztsov’s sign. To do this, the patient takes a lying position, legs extended. The doctor carries out the necessary palpations. Next, the patient raises his right leg up without bending it. The doctor repeats palpation in this position. If the pain intensifies, this indicates an inflammatory process in the appendix. Another indicator of the disease is pain when lightly tapping the right side of the abdomen.

Rovsing's sign is also secondary. To detect it, the patient lies down, and the doctor presses with one hand on the area of the abdomen under the colon, and with the other makes short pushes above it. In this case, the gases that were in the intestine pass into the blind part of the intestine, thereby affecting and irritating the inflamed appendix. The last factor indicating the disease will be pain on palpation of the cecum. In the position on the left side, the discomfort and pain will be stronger.

What else should you consider?

When carrying out the palpation procedure, the main thing is to relax the patient’s abdominal muscles. So, if the doctor feels a lot of tension, he cannot correctly diagnose and determine the points with the greatest pain. Therefore, palpation should sometimes be performed while the patient bends his knees. If, in this position, the abdomen remains tense, you should immediately additional examinations, as this may be a consequence of peritonitis.

In general, the palpation method is very effective and provides a lot of information in the case of diagnosing appendicitis. It allows you to identify the disease in the early stages and begin immediate treatment. This approach guarantees a complete recovery and no complications. However, even knowing all the signs of the disease, you should not carry out the procedure and make a diagnosis yourself.