home Endocrinology What does it mean to have elevated lymphocytes in a dog? Normal hematological parameters in dogs (according to Schalm O.W., Tain N.C., Carroll E.J., Andersen A.S., Lawler D.F., with modifications)

What does it mean to have elevated lymphocytes in a dog? Normal hematological parameters in dogs (according to Schalm O.W., Tain N.C., Carroll E.J., Andersen A.S., Lawler D.F., with modifications)

Has your pet had a blood or urine test? Or even took an ECG? And now you have received the test results. All indicators are listed on the veterinary clinic’s letterhead. You read names that are unusual for you, look at a column of mysterious numbers - and... you don’t understand anything! Common situation? I don’t know what thoughts arose in your mind, but when I first received such a piece of paper, I had the feeling that I was trying to decipher the cuneiform writing of the ancient Egyptians! No, of course, the doctor, having looked at the test results, told me then that everything was fine with my puppy, there was no particular cause for concern, but the hemoglobin level was slightly lower, I should take him for walks in the fresh air more...

Maybe just curiosity got the better of me, but most likely concern about the condition of my four-legged friend forced me to look into this “Egyptian cuneiform”. So, what can the dog owner's test results tell him about his pet? I would like to especially emphasize that this entire note is purely educational in nature and cannot in any way be used to make a diagnosis. Only a veterinarian can diagnose your pet and cure it!

And it should also be remembered that the values of indicators that are considered to be the “norm” are averaged. Normal values may vary significantly depending on the gender, age, and size of the animal. In addition, one should take into account individual characteristics dogs: diseases they have suffered, diseases they take medical supplies, her diet, etc. – all this also has a significant impact on the test results. In other words, only qualified specialist. And we will simply try to figure out what indicators are measured during analyses, what are the norms for these indicators, and what a deviation of values from the norm in one direction or another may indicate.

General urine test in dogs

When conducting a general urine test, indicators such as color, transparency, reaction of urine and its relative density (specific gravity) are assessed.

Normally, the color of urine is yellow, it is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the urine. If the urine becomes lighter in color (polyuria), this indicates a decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances; if the concentration increases, then the urine acquires a rich yellow tint (diuresis). The color of urine may change under the influence of certain medications.

A significant change in urine color may indicate serious illnesses, such as hematuria (red-brown urine), bilirubinemia (beer-colored urine), myoglobinuria (black urine), leukocyturia (milky-white urine).

Urine absolutely healthy dog normally completely transparent. If the conclusion says that the urine is cloudy, this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

The reaction of urine is the level of its acidity. Fluctuations in this indicator are due to the animal’s diet: a meat diet produces an acidic urine reaction, while a plant diet produces an alkaline urine reaction. If the diet is mixed, then predominantly sour foods metabolism, therefore the norm is considered to be a weakly acidic urine reaction. It should be borne in mind that the reaction of urine must be determined immediately upon delivery to the laboratory, since urine decomposes quite quickly and its pH shifts to the alkaline side due to the release of ammonia.

The specific gravity of urine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine, based on which it is estimated renal function in an animal. A urine density value in the range of 1.02-1.035 is considered normal.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

The norm is considered to be a protein content in urine of up to 0.3 g/l. Increased content protein in the urine is called proteinuria. The causes of proteinuria may be chronic infections or destructive processes in the kidneys, urinary tract infections or urolithiasis disease, as well as hemolytic anemia.

Glucose

Normally there should be no glucose in the urine of a healthy dog. Glucosuria (the presence of glucose in the urine) can be caused by either high concentration glucose in the blood or a violation of the processes of filtration of glucose and its reabsorption in the kidneys. This may indicate diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. On average per day with urine adult dog 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are released, which are not detected in one-time tests, so the absence of ketone bodies in the urine is considered the norm. If ketone bodies are detected in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of sugar in the urine. If sugar is detected, a diagnosis of diabetic acidosis (or even coma, depending on the symptoms and condition of the animal) is usually made.

If ketone bodies are found in the urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with fasting, or with gastrointestinal disorders, or with severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin and urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in urine.

The urine of healthy dogs contains a minimal amount of bilirubin; it is not detected by the usual qualitative samples most often used in practice. Therefore, the absence of bile pigments in the urine is considered normal. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or disturbances in the outflow of bile, while direct (bound) bilirubin increases in the blood.

Urobilinogen is produced in small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. Positive reaction for urobilinogen is not very informative for differential diagnosis, because observed not only with various lesions liver, but also for diseases of the gallbladder, as well as enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

Urine sediment may contain both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and casts) - this is the so-called organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in urine is called hematuria. If there is a change in the color of urine, then we're talking about about macrohematuria; if the color of the urine remains normal, and red blood cells are detected only under a microscope, microhematuria is indicated. The presence of unchanged red blood cells in the urine is characteristic of damage to the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Hemoglobinuria is the presence of hemoglobin in the urine, which is caused by intravascular hemolysis. At the same time, the urine changes color to coffee. There are no red blood cells in the urine sediment.

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal are contained in minimal quantities - no more than 1-2 in the field of view of a microscope. Increased content of leukocytes in urine ( pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in urinary tract(cystitis, urethritis).

Epithelial cells are almost always present in urine sediment. It is considered normal if their number in the field of view of the microscope does not exceed 5 pieces. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells entering the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. But the appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells (they line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, prostate ducts) may indicate inflammation of these organs, and even possible neoplasms of the urinary tract.

A cylinder is a protein that has folded into renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the shape of the tubules themselves (a “cast” of a cylindrical shape is obtained). The absence of casts in urine sediment is considered the norm, since single casts can be detected in the urine of a healthy animal per day. Cylindruria(presence of casts in urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Disorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the pH of the urine. So, for example, when urine is acidic, it contains uric acid, urates, oxalates. If the urine reaction is alkaline, calcium and phosphates may be present in it.

Normal in bladder urine is sterile. However, when urinating, germs from lower section urethra enter the urine; in a healthy dog their number does not exceed 10,000 per ml. Under bacteriuria refers to the detection of bacteria in quantities exceeding the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

General blood test in dogs

Hemoglobin- This blood pigment red blood cells that carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells ( polycythemia), may be a consequence of excessive physical activity. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and blood thickening. A decrease in hemoglobin levels indicates anemia.

Red blood cells- These are nuclear-free blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the formed elements of blood. Increased quantity red blood cells (erythrocytosis) can be caused by bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic disease or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration. A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes, and overhydration.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR) in the form of a column when blood settles depends on their quantity, “weight” and shape, as well as on the properties of the plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. Increased value ESR is typical for various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

Platelets- these are formed from cells bone marrow blood platelets. They are responsible for blood clotting. An increased level of platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, and inflammatory processes. Also, the platelet count may increase after some surgical operations. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is typical for systemic autoimmune diseases(lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytes- These are white blood cells formed in the red bone marrow. They perform a very important immune function: they protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. Distinguish different types leukocytes. Each species is characterized by some specific function. Diagnostic value has a number change individual species leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total.

Increased white blood cell count ( leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, long-term use some medications.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes ( leukopenia) may be due infectious pathologies bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula– this is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

1. Neutrophils– these are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, while the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. When diagnosing inflammation, it is the increase in the number of band neutrophils (band shift) that is important. Normally, they make up 60-75% of the total number of leukocytes, band cells - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body or psycho-emotional agitation. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by certain infectious diseases(most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, as well as genetic disorders.

3. Basophils– leukocytes, participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate the presence of allergic reaction on the introduction of a foreign protein (including an allergy to food), on chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, on blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytes- these are the main cells immune system, fighting viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered body cells. Lymphocytes provide the so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.

Lymphocytosis (increased levels of lymphocytes) can be caused by viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and malignant neoplasms, or kidney failure, or chronic diseases liver, or immunodeficiency conditions.

5. Monocytes- these are the largest leukocytes, the so-called tissue macrophages. Their function is the final destruction of foreign cells and proteins, foci of inflammation, and destroyed tissues. Monocytes are the most important cells of the immune system that are the first to encounter antigen. Monocytes present antigen to lymphocytes to develop a full immune response. Their number is 0-2% of the total number of leukocytes.

Average statistical values of the norm of indicators determined at general analysis blood of dogs are given in the table.

Index	Floor	Up to 12 months		1-7 years		7 years and older
Index	Floor	Oscillations	Wed. meaning	Oscillations	Wed. meaning	Oscillations	Wed. meaning
Red blood cells (million/µl)	Male	2,99-8,52	5,09	5,26-6,57	5,92	3,33-7,76	5,28
Red blood cells (million/µl)	Bitch	2,76-8,42	5,06	5,13-8,6	6,47	3,34-9,19	5,17
Hemoglobin (g/dl)	Male	6,9-16,5	10,7	12,7-16,3	15,5	14,721,2	17,9
Hemoglobin (g/dl)	Bitch	6,4-18,9	11,2	11,5-17,9	14,7	11,0-22,5	16,1
Leukocytes (thousand µl)	Male	9,9-27,7	17,1	8,3-19,5	11,9	7,9-35,3	15,5
Leukocytes (thousand µl)	Bitch	8,8-26,8	15,9	7,5-17,5	11,5	5,2-34,0	13,4
Mature neutrophils (%)	Male	63-73	68	65-73	69	55-80	66
Mature neutrophils (%)	Bitch	64-74	69	58-76	67	40-80	64
Lymphocytes (%)	Male	18-30	24	9-26	18	15-40	29
Lymphocytes (%)	Bitch	13-28	21	11-29	20	13-45	29
Monocytes (%)	Male	1-10	6	2-10	6	0-4	1
Monocytes (%)	Bitch	1-10	7	0-10	5	0-4	1
Eosinophils (%)	Male	2-11	3	1-8	4	1-11	4
Eosinophils (%)	Bitch	1-9	5	1-10	6	0-19	6
Platelets x 109/l				200-500	350

Biochemical blood test for dogs

A biochemical analysis of dogs' blood determines the content of certain substances in the blood. The table below shows a list of these substances, the average levels of these substances in the blood for dogs and possible reasons increases and decreases in the amount of these substances in the blood.

Substance	Unit measurements	Norm	Possible reasons for the increase	Possible reasons for the decline
Glucose	mmol/l	4.3-7.3	Diabetes Exercise stress Thyrotoxicosis Cushing's syndrome Pancreatic diseases Liver or kidney diseases	Starvation Insulin overdose Tumors Hypofunction of the endocrine glands Severe poisoning Pancreatic diseases
Total protein	g/l	59-73	Dehydration Myeloma	Starvation Intestinal diseases Kidney failure Increased consumption (blood loss, burns, inflammation)
Albumen	g/l	22-39	Dehydration	Same as for total protein
Total bilirubin	µmol/l	0-7,5	Damage to liver cells Obstruction of the bile ducts
Urea	mmol/l	3-8.5	Renal dysfunction Urinary tract obstruction Increased protein content in food	Protein fasting Pregnancy Malabsorption
Creatinine	µmol/l	30-170	Renal dysfunction Hyperthyroidism	Pregnancy Age-related decrease in muscle mass
Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT)	units	0-65	Destruction of liver cells Destruction of muscle tissue Burns Toxic effects on the liver of drugs
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)	units	10-42	Liver cell damage Heavy physical activity Heart failure Burns Heatstroke	Severe necrotic processes, liver rupture Vitamin B6 deficiency
Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT)	units	0-8	Diseases of the liver, pancreas Hyperthyroidism
Alpha amylase	units	550-1700	Pancreatitis Mumps Diabetes Volvulus of the stomach and intestines Peritonitis	Hypofunction of the pancreas Thyrotoxicosis
Potassium	mmol/l	3.6-5.5	Cell damage Dehydration	Chronic fasting Prolonged vomiting, diarrhea Renal dysfunction Excess of adrenal hormones
Sodium	mmol/l	140-155	Excess salt intake Loss of extracellular fluid Dysregulation water-salt metabolism	Kidney pathology Heart failure Diabetes
Chlorides	mmol/l	105-122	Dehydration Acute renal failure	Profuse diarrhea, vomiting Increased fluid volume
Calcium	mmol/l	2.25-3	Function enhancement parathyroid gland Malignant tumors Excess Vitamin D Dehydration	Decreased thyroid function Vitamin D deficiency Chronic renal failure Magnesium deficiency
Phosphorus, inorganic	mmol/l	0.8-2.3	Bone destruction Healing of fractures Endocrine disorders Excess Vitamin D Kidney failure	Growth hormone deficiency Vitamin D deficiency Hypercalcemia Malabsorption
Phosphatase alkaline	units	0-100	Pregnancy Increased turnover in bone tissue Bone diseases Liver diseases	Hypothyroidism Anemia Lack of vitamins C, B12, zinc, magnesium
Total cholesterol	mmol/l	2.9-8.3	Liver diseases Hypothyroidism Cardiac ischemia	Enteropathies Hepatopathy Malignant neoplasms Poor nutrition

Decoding biochemical analysis Blood tests in dogs help to refute or confirm the diagnosis that was previously made to the pet based on a clinical examination. It can also help identify the presence of other pathologies that require immediate medical intervention.

Biochemical blood test in dogs

The obtained biochemical data helps the veterinarian give a correct assessment of the condition metabolic processes and get a correct picture of the course of a particular disease in a dog.

A biochemical blood test helps diagnose the disease.

Definition pathological process occurs on the basis of data about:

Main indications

A biochemical blood test is prescribed when:

pancreatic amylase;
renal pathologies;
gastrointestinal disorders.

If you have a gastrointestinal disorder, you should take a blood test.

How to get tested correctly

Blood sampling from an animal is carried out as in veterinary clinic, and at home, after a preliminary agreement with a doctor. On the eve of the procedure, it is necessary to stop using medications.

The dog's blood is drawn at a veterinary clinic.

You also need to temporarily give up physical activity. It is not recommended to perform massage manipulations, do ultrasound and x-rays.

You can give your dog food only 8–12 hours before the procedure.

Table and norms of indicators

Biochemical blood parameters are as follows:

Index	Norm (µmol/l.)
Chlorides	102–114
Sodium	140–154
Potassium	3,9–5,6
Triglycerides	0,57
Uric acid	159
Magnesium	0,71–1,1
Calcium	2,2–2,8
Inorganic phosphorus	0,8–1,9
Creatinine	33–134
Urea	4,2–8,8
Amylase	299–2.0 thousand
Total bilirubin	0–7,7
Cholesterol	3,3–6,9
Albumen	26–36 g l
Protein	56–76 g/l
Glucose	3,3-5,9

Decoding the results

Blood values are read exclusively by a specialist. All obtained data are considered in a comprehensive manner.

The results are deciphered by a specialist.

Test results in themselves do not constitute a diagnosis.

To confirm the diagnosis, it is carried out additional examination. Only after this the veterinarian prescribes treatment.

Changes in cholesterol levels

Improper feeding can help lower cholesterol.

An increase indicates liver pathologies. But the dog is also diagnosed with hypothyroidism, ischemia or atherosclerosis.

Cirrhosis.
Portocaval anastomosis.
Oncology.

And also a decrease in cholesterol indicates that the owner is feeding the dog incorrectly.

Changes in phosphorus indicators

This element is part nucleic acids . Its level is regulated simultaneously with calcium levels. An increase indicates the destruction of bone tissue, an excess of vitamin D, leakage endocrine pathologies or .

A decrease in indicators may indicate:

Malabsorption.
Lack of vitamin D.
Lack of growth hormone.

With hypercalcemia, the dog experiences nausea.

Changes in calcium levels

This element helps conduct nerve impulses into the heart muscle and retain fluid in the blood vessels. This stops the development of swelling.

Normal calcium levels contribute to healthy blood clotting and muscle contraction. The element is found in tooth enamel and bone tissue.

Calcium is present in dog tooth enamel.

Increasing its performance indicates dysfunction of the parathyroid gland. This may also indicate the progression of such malignant pathologies like leukemia and myeloma. This condition is also called hypercalcemia.

Decrease in indicators may signal renal failure or thyroid dysfunction.

Changes in chloride levels

Their increase signals acute renal failure or the penetration of salicylates into the body.

An increase in chlorides in the blood indicates renal failure.

But it also indicates increased functioning of the adrenal cortex.

Changes in sodium levels

An increase indicates that the central regulation of water-salt metabolism has been disrupted. This dangerous condition also called hypernatremia.

A low sodium level indicates heart failure.

Changes in creatinine levels

This item is the final product creatine metabolism, which is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from:

methionine;

glycine;

arginine

It is excreted from the body by the kidneys and is not reabsorbed in the renal tubules. Its increase may indicate the development of renal failure. A decrease indicates thinning muscle mass.

Sometimes a change in these indicators signals pregnancy.

Creatinine levels change during pregnancy.

Changes in urea levels

The dog's urinary system.

When the indicators decrease, this indicates protein starvation or a malabsorption of this element.

Changes in total bilirubin levels

This bile component is a coloring substance. When its levels increase, skin tone may change. This symptom usually indicates liver cell damage.

This may also be a sign of obstruction bile ducts. The dog may be diagnosed with obstructive jaundice.

If bilirubin levels change, jaundice may appear.

Changes in total protein indicators

Protein is the most important biochemical criterion. It is necessary to regulate metabolism and accelerate biochemical reactions. It is thanks to proteins that the liquid in blood vessels does not penetrate tissue.

Protein regulates metabolism in the blood.

Their synthesis in the liver is carried out from dietary amino acids. Consists of total protein from globulins and albumins. An increase in indicators indicates dehydration or the development of myeloma. This condition is also called hyperproteinemia.

A decrease in indicators signals the development of intestinal pathologies or acute renal failure. And also this symptom is called hypoproteinemia.

Changes in glucose levels

Glucose deficiency leads to the fact that this element does not pass into cells.

Blood levels increase, but cellular starvation is observed. Against the background of an increase, diabetes mellitus or thyrotoxicosis may develop. Sometimes an increase in glucose indicates the development of Cushing's syndrome.

A decrease in levels is called hypoglycemia. This signals severe pancreatic pathologies. In the worst case it can be diagnosed malignant tumor. Sometimes a decrease in indicators indicates that the animal’s liver is affected.

In case of poisoning, glucose levels change.

What is important to remember?

The data from the biochemical blood test must be compared with the general clinical data that were obtained by the specialist during the examination of the dog.

Analysis data is compared with general inspection dogs.

The point of this study is to reflect the functioning of the enzymatic system of the canine body on the state of the blood.

conclusions

A blood test can help identify the disease initial stage.

A biochemical blood test should be performed not only when specific symptoms. This study allows you to identify any disease at the initial stage. Therefore, it is necessary to be examined by a veterinarian regularly and take tests on his recommendation.

Video about deciphering dog blood tests

According to clinical analysis they study shaped elements blood (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets). Thanks to this analysis it is possible to determine general condition animal health.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells: Normally, the number of red blood cells is: in dogs 5.2-8.4 * 10^12,
in cats 4.6-10.1 *10^12 per liter of blood. There can be either a lack of red blood cells in the blood or an increase in their number.

1) Lack of red blood cells in the blood is called erythropenia.

Erythropenia can be absolute or relative.

1.Absolute erythropenia- violation of the synthesis of red blood cells, their active destruction, or large blood loss.
2.Relative erythropenia- This is a decrease in the percentage of red blood cells in the blood due to the fact that the blood thins. Typically, this picture is observed when, for some reason, a large number of fluids into the bloodstream. The total number of red blood cells in this condition in the body remains normal.

IN clinical practice The most common classification of anemia is as follows:

Anemia due to increased destruction of red blood cells
a. Aplastic anemia - disease of the hematopoietic system, expressed in a sharp inhibition or cessation of growth and maturation of cells in the bone marrow.
b. Iron-deficiency anemia is seen as a symptom of another disease or as a condition rather than as a separate disease and occurs when the body has insufficient iron stores.
c. Megaloblastic anemia - rare disease, caused by impaired absorption of vitamin B12 and folic acid.
d. Sideroblastic anemia– with this anemia, the animal’s body has enough iron, but the body is not able to use this iron to produce hemoglobin, which is needed to deliver oxygen to all tissues and organs. As a result, iron begins to accumulate in red blood cells.

2) Erythrocytosis

1. Absolute erythrocytosis– increase in the number of red blood cells in the body. This picture is observed in sick animals with chronic heart and lung diseases.

2. Relative erythrocytosis– observed when the total number of red blood cells in the body is not increased, but due to blood thickening, the percentage of red blood cells per unit volume of blood increases. Blood becomes thicker when the body loses a lot of water.

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobinis part of red blood cells and serves to transport gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) with blood.

Normal amount of hemoglobin: in dogs 110-170 g/l and in cats 80-170 g/l

1. A reduced hemoglobin content in red blood cells indicates

anemia.

2. Increased hemoglobin levels may be associated with diseases

blood or increased hematopoiesis in the bone marrow with some

diseases: - chronic bronchitis,

Bronchial asthma,

Congenital or acquired heart defects,

Polycystic kidney disease and others, as well as after taking certain medications, for example,

steroid hormones.

Hematocrit

Hematocritshows percentage plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and

platelets) blood.

1. An increased content of formed elements is observed during dehydration of the body (vomiting, diarrhea) and

some diseases.

2. A decrease in the number of blood cells is observed with an increase in circulating blood - this

may occur with edema and when a large amount of fluid enters the blood.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

The normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate in dogs and cats is 2-6 mm per hour.

1. Faster sedimentation is observed in inflammatory processes, anemia and some other diseases.

2. Slow sedimentation of erythrocytes occurs with an increase in their concentration in the blood; with an increase in bile

pigments in the blood, which indicates liver disease.

Leukocytes

In dogs, the normal number of leukocytes is from 8.5-10.5 * 10^9 / l of blood, in cats it is 6.5-18.5 * 10^9 / l. There are several types of leukocytes in an animal's blood. And in order to clarify the state of the body, the leukocyte formula is derived - percentage ratio different forms leukocytes.

1) Leukocytosis– increase in the content of leukocytes in the blood.
1. Physiological leukocytosis - an increase in the number of leukocytes by a little and not for long, usually due to the entry of leukocytes into the blood from the spleen, bone marrow and lungs during food intake and physical activity.
2. Medication (protein-containing serum preparations, vaccines, antipyretic drugs, ether-containing drugs).
3.Pregnant
4.Newborns (14 days of life)
5. Reactive (true) leukocytosis develops during infectious and inflammatory processes, this occurs due to the increased production of leukocytes by the hematopoietic organs

2) Leukopenia– this is a decrease in the number of leukocytes in the blood, develops when viral infections and exhaustion, with bone marrow lesions. Typically, a decrease in the number of leukocytes is associated with a violation of their production and leads to a deterioration of immunity.

Leukogram- percentage ratio various forms leukocytes (eosinophils; monocytes; basophils; myelocytes; young; neutrophils: band, segmented; lymphocytes)

	Eoz	Mon	Baz	Mie	Yun	Pal	Seg	Lymph
Cats	2-8	1-5	0-1	0	0	3-9	40-50	36-50
Dogs	3-9	1-5	0-1	0	0	1-6	43-71	21-40

1.Eosinophils are phagocytic cells that absorb antigen-antibody immune complexes (mainly immunoglobulin E). In dogs, the norm is 3-9%, in cats 2-8%.

1.1.Eosinophilia is an increase in the number of eosinophils in the peripheral blood, which may be due to stimulation of the process of proliferation of the eosinophilic lineage of hematopoiesis under the influence of the formed antigen-antibody immune complexes and in diseases accompanied by autoimmune processes in organism.

1.2. Eosinopenia is a decrease or complete absence eosinophils in peripheral blood. Eosinopenia is observed in infectious and inflammatory purulent processes in organism.

2.1.Monocytosis - an increase in the content of monocytes in the blood most often occurs when

A) infectious diseases: toxoplasmosis, brucellosis;
b)high monocytes in the blood are one of the laboratory signs severely leaking infectious processes-sepsis, subacute endocarditis, some forms of leukemia (acute monocytic leukemia),
c) also malignant diseases lymphatic system- lymphogranulomatosis, lymphomas.

2.2.Monocytopenia- a decrease in the number of monocytes in the blood and even their absence can be observed with damage to the bone marrow with a decrease in its function (aplastic anemia, B12 deficiency anemia).

3.Basophils filled with granules that contain various mediators that, when released in the surrounding tissue, cause inflammation. Basophil granules contain large amounts of serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes. It also contains heparin, thanks to which basophils are able to regulate blood clotting. Normally, cats and dogs have 0-1% basophils in the leukogram.

3.1.Basophilia- this is an increase in the content of basophils in the peripheral blood, noted when:

a) decreased thyroid function,
b) diseases of the blood system,
c) allergic conditions.

3.2.Basopenia- this decrease in the content of basophils in the peripheral blood is observed when:
a) acute pneumonia,
b) acute infections,
c) Cushing's syndrome,
d)stressful influences,
e)pregnancy,
f) increased thyroid function.

4.Myelocytes and metamyelocytes– precursors of leukocytes with a segmental nucleus (neutrophils). They are localized in the bone marrow and therefore are normal when clinical analysis blood are not detected. Appearance
precursors of neutrophils in a clinical blood test is called a shift leukocyte formula to the left and can be observed when various diseases accompanied by absolute leukocytosis. High quantitative indicatorsmyelocytes and metamyelocytes observed in myeloid leukemia. Their main function is protection against infections through chemotaxis (directed movement towards stimulating agents) and phagocytosis (absorption and digestion) of foreign microorganisms.

5. Neutrophils as well as eosinophils and basophils, belong to granulocytic blood cells, since characteristic feature These blood cells are characterized by the presence of grains (granules) in the cytoplasm. Neutrophil granules contain lysozyme, myeloperoxidase, neutral and acid hydrolases, cationic proteins, lactoferrin, collagenase, aminopeptidase. It is thanks to the contents of the granules that neutrophils perform their functions.

5.1. Neutrophilia-increase in the number of neutrophils (band neutrophils are normal in dogs 1-6%, in cats 3-9%; segmented neutrophils in dogs 49-71%, in cats 40-50%) in the blood.

The main reason for the increase in neutrophils in the blood is inflammatory process in the body, especially during purulent processes. By increasing the absolute number of neutrophils in the blood during the inflammatory process, one can indirectly judge the extent of inflammation and the adequacy of the immune response to the inflammatory process in the body.

5.2.Neutropenia- decrease in the number of neutrophils in peripheral blood. The reason for the decrease in neutrophils in the peripheral blood there may be suppression of bone marrow hematopoiesis of an organic or functional nature, increased destruction of neutrophils, and exhaustion of the body against the background of long-term diseases.

Neutropenia most often occurs when:

a) Viral infections, some bacterial infections(brucellosis), rickettsial infections, protozoal infections (toxoplasmosis).

b) Inflammatory diseases that occur in severe form and acquire the character of a generalized infection.

c) Side effects some medications (cytostatics, sulfonamides, analgesics, etc.)

d) Hypoplastic and aplastic anemia.

e) Hypersplenism.

f) Agranulocytosis.

g) Severe body weight deficiency with the development of cachexia.

6.Lymphocytes- these are the formed elements of blood, one of the types of leukocytes that are part of the immune system. Their function is to circulate in the blood and tissues in order to provide immune defense, directed against foreign agents penetrating the body. In dogs, the normal leukogram is 21-40%, in cats 36-50%

6.1.Lymphocytosis - this increase in the number of lymphocytes is usually observed during viral infections, purulent inflammatory diseases.
1.Relative lymphocytosis called an increase in the percentage of lymphocytes in leukocyte formula at their normal absolute value in the blood.

2.Absolute lymphocytosis, unlike relative, is connected With an increase in the total number of lymphocytes in the blood and occurs in diseases and pathological conditions, accompanied by increased stimulation of lymphopoiesis.

An increase in lymphocytes is most often absolute and occurs in the following diseases and pathological conditions:

a) Viral infections,

b) Acute and chronic lymphocytic leukemia,

c) Lymphosarcoma,

d) Hyperthyroidism.

6.2.Lymphocytopenia- decrease in lymphocytes in the blood.

Lymphocytopenia, as well as lymphocytosis, is divided into relative and absolute.

1.Relative lymphocytopenia - this is a decrease in the percentage of lymphocytes in the leukoformula when normal level the total number of lymphocytes in the blood, it can occur in inflammatory diseases accompanied by an increase in the number of neutrophils in the blood, for example, in pneumonia or purulent inflammation.

2.Absolutelymphocytopenia - This is a decrease in the total number of lymphocytes in the blood. Occurs in diseases and pathological conditions accompanied by inhibition of the lymphocytic germ of hematopoiesis or all germs of hematopoiesis (pancytopenia). Lymphocytopenia also occurs with increased death of lymphocytes.

Platelets

Platelets are essential for blood clotting. Tests may show an increase in platelet counts - this is possible with some diseases or increased activity bone marrow. There may be a decrease in the number of platelets - this is typical for some diseases.