home Endocrinology The role of hormones in metabolism: provocateurs of processes. Open lesson on the topic “The role of hormones in the human body” (8th grade)

The role of hormones in metabolism: provocateurs of processes. Open lesson on the topic “The role of hormones in the human body” (8th grade)

JOB 145

1. In which of the three subjects in the figure did the pituitary gland secrete normal amount hormones, who has excess and who has insufficient? (See textbook, §45).
Subject A – insufficient.
Subject B – normal.
Subject B – excess.

2. At what age could the disorders appear in the sick people?
In childhood.

3. Repeat the structure of a cell according to the textbook (see p. 17). Which organelles are affected by pituitary growth hormone? Select the correct answer from those proposed by placing a “+” sign in the box.

JOB 146

The picture on the left shows thyroid, on the right in the oval is its microstructure.
Answer the questions.
1. Where hormones accumulate thyroid gland and where do they go?
Thyroid hormones immediately enter the bloodstream.

2. These hormones are known to enhance oxidation processes. Do they affect ribosomes or mitochondria?

Yes, these hormones stimulate the functioning of ribosomes and mitochondria.

Check your answers to §45.

JOB 147

Fill in the blanks (see §45).

With increased secretion of thyroid hormones energy metabolism increases, as a result of which body temperature increases, cardiac activity increases, irritability increases, body weight decreases.
With insufficient secretion of thyroid hormones, the heart works slowly, the legs are short, the body temperature is low, and the basal metabolism decreases.

JOB 148

Answer the questions (see §45).
1. What glands internal secretion delay premature puberty?
Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland.
2. Which glands stimulate the development of the gonads?
Adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid gland.
3. Which glands influence the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics?
Sex glands, pituitary gland.
4. Which gland is directly connected to the brain?
Pituitary.

JOB 149

1. How is the amount of glucose in the blood maintained? Fill the table.

2. Insulin stimulates the formation of glycogen, adrenaline - its breakdown and the appearance of glucose necessary for energy expenditure. Why must insulin be secreted in the body throughout life?
Because the body constantly needs the energy that insulin releases.
3. Oxidation occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Can glucose enter cells without insulin?
No.
4. Oxidation of other substances, such as fat, protein, can occur, but this leads to metabolic disorders, in particular nerve cells. Why?
For nerve cells, glucose is the only source of energy.
5. Find the adrenal glands in the picture for task 143. These endocrine glands secrete many hormones, but we will focus on only two of them: adrenaline and norepinephrine. These hormones are released during increased physical, emotional or other mental stress, when mobilization of physical and mental strength is required. Answer the questions.
Are these hormones released in the adrenal cortex or medulla?
Mozgovoy.
How adrenaline and norepinephrine affect the heart
Heartbeat quickens.
Blood pressure
Rising
To convert liver glycogen into glucose
Glycogen breakdown increases.
Why does the prolonged release of these hormones during emotional stress have a harmful effect on the body’s condition?
Because lasting influence these hormones (increased heart rate, increased blood pressure) harms the body.
How to get rid of excess hormones such as adrenaline and norepinephrine and reduce emotional stress?
Physical work. When muscles are tense, the concentration of adrenaline and norepinephrine in them decreases.

Text: Evgenia Bagma

The role of hormones in metabolism is difficult, and sometimes even extremely dangerous, to underestimate. After all, the word “hormone” itself comes from the Greek “to excite.” And in this name lies the essence of hormones - they are catalysts for many human chemical processes at the cellular level.

Hormonal processes in the body

The role of hormones in metabolism huge. Hormones are substances that are mainly produced in the endocrine glands, which include the thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries. Mainly regulate metabolism peptide hormones- for example, growth hormone or insulin. The first is responsible for burning fat and building muscle, and the second is involved in converting glucose entering the body into energy.

Before talking about the role of hormones in metabolism, that is, in metabolism, it should be said that there are two metabolic processes - catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is responsible for the breakdown of substances into construction material for the body and the energy it needs. Anabolism is a creative process; it uses the energy obtained through catabolism and ensures the assembly of new cells and tissues. Destroyers include glucagon - it helps glucose enter the blood, then cortisol, which increases the concentration of glucose in the blood, thereby improving cell nutrition, and finally, the fear hormone adrenaline the fear hormone adrenaline - it supplies the body with oxygen. “Creative” hormones are insulin, which helps the body’s cells effectively use incoming glucose, somatotropin is responsible for body growth, for building muscles and bone tissue - testosterone. Since men contain it in greater quantities than women, men lose weight faster - muscles require more energy than fat tissue. The creative hormone for women is estrogen, it is responsible for the strength of bones and good shape breasts But at the same time, it is estrogen that is the “culprit” of fat deposits on a woman’s hips.

Hormone regulators

The role of hormones in metabolism can be explained using the example of the action of the main hormonal “regulators” - thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Thus, excess weight can be caused by insufficient production of these hormones by the thyroid gland, which causes metabolism to slow down, and the energy obtained from glucose is stored in fat reserves. But the role of hormones in metabolism can be the opposite - so, with an excess of these hormones, the body begins to draw energy from muscle tissue. Often from women who are unsuccessfully struggling with overweight, you might hear that the problem is their slow metabolism caused by hormonal imbalance. It is worth saying that the reason excess weight Problems with the thyroid gland occur only in three percent of cases. In a number of others, it is necessary to reconsider the food system and physical activity.

The role of hormones in metabolism, however, is very high. Any serious change in weight - up or down - requires timely consultation with a doctor. Only in this case will you be able to figure out which hormones failed you. For support hormonal balance important to lead healthy image life and be regularly monitored by an endocrinologist.

Public lesson in 8a class on the topic:

“The role of hormones in metabolism, growth and development of the body”

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

ensure the formation of knowledge about the symptoms of diseases endocrine system, their reasons;

consolidation and expansion of knowledge about the importance of the endocrine system, the structural features and functioning of the endocrine glands,

Educational:

develop the ability to work in a team;

to form cognitive interest in the subject;

to form a value-based attitude towards one’s health through the implementation of the principles of subjectivity and value

Educational:

learn to formulate lesson goals, use subject language, and correctly express your thoughts;

develop search and information skills;

develop educational and organizational skills: organize yourself to complete the task, carry out self-control and self-analysis of educational activities.

Equipment: relief table “Endocrine glands”,

task cards, multimedia presentation, multimedia equipment

Lesson steps

Organizational moment

Checking homework

Which glands of the human body are indicated in the figure by numbers 1 – 8?

What substances do they release?

Describe the properties of hormones (slide 1)

Than glands external secretion differ from the endocrine glands? Which glands are classified as mixed secretion glands?

By inserting the missing letters into the words, you will find out the correct answer (slide 2)

Formulating the lesson topic

What is the name of the doctor who deals with the identification, treatment, and prevention of pathologies of the endocrine system? (slide 3, 4)

What do you think we will talk about in class today? (students' answers) Students name the topic of the lesson (slide 5)

The epigraph of our lesson will be the words of Thomas More (slide 6)

A wise man would rather avoid illness than choose

remedies against them.

Objectives of our lesson:(slide 7)

developing knowledge about the symptoms of diseases of the endocrine system, their causes;

show the consequences of disruption of the endocrine glands;

fostering a caring attitude towards one’s health

As you study the topic, you will fill out the table “Endocrine glands”

(slide 8)

Impact on the body
	hyperfunction	hypofunction

(slide 9) The shortest and tallest man in the world met in London on the occasion of a photo shoot for the Guinness Book of Records. Photo Sultan Kösen- himself tall man in the world ( 251 cm) next to Chandra Bahadur Dangi ( 56 cm) - the most low man in the world.

Why is such a difference in height possible?

Yu. Minaev and O. Degtyarev will answer the question:

Minaeva Yulia(slide 10)

Scientists have found that the pituitary gland is in charge of the growth process. This gland weighing 0.5 - 0.6 g, shaped like a bean, is located in the bony depression at the base of the skull, called the sella turcica. The pituitary gland produces up to 25 hormones, but only 6 of them are obtained in pure form and well studied.

The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones that stimulate the work of ribosomes and enhance protein synthesis in cells. As a result, cells grow and divide faster.

When excess secretion hormone in children and adolescents, accelerated growth occurs, sometimes to such an extent that we have to talk about gigantism. Gigantism most often manifests itself in adolescence. With the disease, puberty is delayed, headaches, weakness, and fatigue appear. Height, as a rule, exceeds 2m.

Hypofunction leads to growth retardation and dwarfism.

In this case, patients have a height of several tens of centimeters to a meter. There is a known case where a girl stopped growing at the age of 6. At 9 years old, her height was 90 cm. To increase her height, she was injected with growth hormone for 8.5 months. During this time she grew by 7 cm, and in the next 2 years by another 14 cm (slide 11)

Degtyareva Olga (slide 12)

Acromegaly occurs when there is an excess of pituitary hormone. This disease has been known since ancient times. The name of the disease comes from two Greek words “akros” - limb and “megas” - large, that is, a disease in which the limbs become enlarged. Indeed, with acromegaly it changes appearance, facial features become larger, the size of the feet and hands increases.

Maurice Tillet was born in France in 1910. He was a gifted and extremely intelligent man: he could speak 14 languages and performed with great skill everything he had to undertake. He could have chosen any career he wanted, if not for one terrible circumstance...

At the age of 12, doctors diagnosed him with acromegaly - rare disease, causing excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones. In just a few months, Maurice turned from an intelligent and attractive young man, confident in himself, into an ugly man. The disease literally disfigured him, and besides, people gave him offensive nicknames...

Tired of enduring ridicule, he fled to the USA, where he used his unusual appearance as the only possible way- He became a professional boxer. Maurice has won many titles and awards.

Teacher: In the fairy tale, an angry stepmother turns into a witch before the eyes of her unloved stepdaughter - her nose became sharper, her eyes bulged out of her sockets, her face and neck swelled, and the stepmother began to shake. So in a fairy tale. Can such transformations happen in life? This question will be answered for us Pavlova Svetlana and Batishcheva Yulia and Danilova Olga.

Thyroid(slides 13, 14)

This is a small organ located on the front of the neck. It is shaped like a butterfly and, despite its modest size (up to 18 mm in women and up to 25 mm in men), performs extremely important tasks. The thyroid gland produces the most important hormones for the body: thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which regulate many processes in the body. They stimulate metabolism, support the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, brain, muscles and reproductive system. Consequently, any problems with the thyroid gland entail disruptions in the functioning of the entire body. Unfortunately, thyroid dysfunction is very common these days. Unfavorable environment, hereditary predisposition, iodine deficiency, stress - these are far from full list factors influencing the work of this body.

With hyperfunction of the thyroid gland, weakness, increased fatigue, irritability, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, sweating, hand tremors, a feeling of heat, weight loss with normal appetite, the appearance of a goiter, protrusion of the eyes occur. These are signs of Graves' disease. In 1840, a doctor Basedov first described a disease associated with excessive functional activity of the thyroid gland.

With reduced thyroid function, patients are characterized by lethargy, slowness, weakened memory and mental abilities. Typically he complains about general weakness, headache, swelling, dry skin, lack of appetite, drowsiness. Insufficiency of thyroid function in humans childhood leads to cretinism.

Cretinism(from fr. cretin- idiot, weak-minded) - an endocrine disease caused by a lack of thyroid hormones, characterized by a pronounced decrease in thyroid function, a delay in physical and mental development

Characteristic signs cretinism:

retardation of physical development,

delayed growth and change of teeth, prolonged non-fusion of the fontanelles of the skull,

coarse facial features: a wide flat nose with a sunken back, eyes far apart from each other

large tongue (often it does not fit in the mouth),

disproportionate body structure: short limbs, large head,

thick and rough skin,

underdeveloped secondary sexual characteristics,

violations mental development and intelligence

short stature (often dwarfism)

Myxedema(or mucous swelling) is an endocrine disease that occurs in adults with reduced thyroid function or lack of thyroid hormones entering the blood. This disease is a consequence of a severe form of hypothyroidism. Myxedema disease is more common in places where the population has a pronounced iodine deficiency in water and food.

The most common manifestations of myxedema are:

mucus-like swelling in the upper part of the body;

difficulty swallowing solid food, difficulty breathing;

dry skin, brittle hair and nails;

constant chilliness, depression general tone;

persistent headaches.

Danilova Olga:(slides 15, 16)

More and more often we hear that in nutrition modern man lack of iodine.

Why is this microelement so important for health, and what are the consequences of its absence?

Iodine is the only trace element that is directly involved in the synthesis of the thyroid hormone - thyroxine, the creation of which accounts for up to 90 percent of iodine consumed in food. Thyroxine controls and enhances the intensity of metabolism: water-salt metabolism, metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. It also regulates heat exchange in the body, cell division and growth, liver function and of cardio-vascular system. In addition, the state of the nervous system depends on this hormone, emotional condition man and his psychological health.

If not enough iodine is supplied with food, the thyroid gland produces little thyroxine. This condition is called iodine deficiency. In the future, this can lead to insufficient function of the thyroid gland - hypothyroidism.

Most often, the lack of iodine is the first to affect the functioning of the nervous system: a person becomes forgetful, his attention and reaction decrease, irritability and drowsiness appear, and sometimes even depression occurs. In addition, the immune system weakens, fluid stagnates in the body, and in women menstrual cycle, infertility may develop. Problems with the heart and blood vessels appear: arrhythmia, increased blood pressure, decreased hemoglobin levels in the blood. Body weight also increases - after all, there is too little thyroxine for the process of energy consumption to proceed in a normal way, and it is stored in excess in the form of fat reserves. Sometimes a slow metabolism is one of the signs of iodine deficiency.

The most iodine is found in seafood: seaweed it is found at about 220 mcg per 100 g, and in shrimp - 150 mcg per 100 g. Seafood and fish should become an integral part of your diet. Eat fish dishes two to three times a week, preferably sea fish. An excellent source of iodine is fish fat.

A sufficient amount of useful iodine is found in potatoes, carrots, tomatoes, eggplants and onions. Fruits we recommend include oranges, feijoas, strawberries, persimmons and apples. Apples are best eaten with grains.

Meat, milk and dairy products contain only 7–16 mcg/100 g of iodine. drinking water in most regions of our country there is very little of it - 0.2–2 μg/l.

All of the above foods contain varying amounts of iodine. By balancing your diet, including iodine-containing dishes, you can protect yourself from many troubles associated with hormonal imbalance.

In order to enrich the diet with iodine, specially labeled food products, to which 10 to 30 percent of the daily requirement of this microelement is added.

The most popular among them is iodized salt, which contains about 45 μg/g of iodine. If you use it as food instead of regular food, you can get all daily norm Yoda. The required amount of salt is about 6 grams. per day. But remember that adding such food supplement need to already ready meals. This should not be done during cooking, since everything useful microelements are destroyed.

Batishcheva Yulia(slides 17, 18)

In Soviet historiography Nadezhda Krupskaya was mentioned exclusively in the status of “wife and comrade-in-arms” Vladimir Lenin.

She was very attractive in her younger years, but this beauty was taken away from her by a terrible autoimmune disease - Graves' disease, which affects women eight times more often than men, and is also known by another name - diffuse toxic goiter. One of its most striking manifestations is bulging eyes.

Nadezhda inherited the disease and already in her youth it manifested itself in lethargy and regular ailments. Frequent colds in St. Petersburg, and then prison and exile led to an exacerbation of the disease.

For hundreds of years, the portrait of this young woman, famous for her mysterious smile, has never ceased to amaze people. They call her Gioconda, or Mona Lisa, although the name of the woman depicted in the portrait has not yet been established. This is one of the few completed paintings by the greatest Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci.

According to some scientists, the woman depicted in the portrait suffered from a disorder of the thyroid gland - endemic goiter.

In Peter Rubens’s painting “The Lady in a Straw Hat,” the beauty depicted also has signs of Basedow’s disease.

Teacher: so, let's check what you wrote in the table (slide 20)

Teacher: He will tell us about the pancreas Anisimova Tatyana (slides 21-24)

Human pancreas (lat. pancreas) - organ digestive system; a large gland with exocrine and endocrine functions.

The length of the gland in an adult is 14-22 cm. The weight of the organ is about 70-80 g.

The endocrine part of the pancreas is formed by pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans. These islets secrete the hormone insulin.

By producing hormones, the pancreas takes an important part in the regulation of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. Insulin promotes the absorption of glucose by cells, maintains its constancy in the blood, converting glucose into glycogen, which is deposited in the liver and muscles.

When the pancreas is underfunctioning, a disease occurs diabetes.

Medical historians find the first mentions of diabetes in the writings of doctors of the 1st century; further study showed that one of main symptoms diabetes, namely the release of large amounts of sugar in the urine, and dehydration of the body.

The word “diabetes” translated from Greek means “passing”, “flowing”. In the name of the disease, it indicates that sugar passes through the body.

This disease is quite common. Most often it is detected in children from 6 to 12 years old, i.e. during the most rapid growth. Diabetes is usually detected in children after various acute infectious diseases. Mental or even physical trauma can cause the disease. Its development is often promoted by overeating, especially carbohydrate-rich foods ( flour products, sugar, sweets).

There are more than 35 thousand people with diabetes in the Lipetsk region.

According to WHO, more than 3 million people in the world currently suffer from diabetes. (slide 25)

Statistical data for Russia and the Lipetsk region (slides 26, 27)

Foods with the highest sugar content (slide 28)

“...I looked into the half-open door: dark, quiet, dry; Smells like mint and lemon balm. There was a stage in the corner, and on it, covered with a blanket, was some small figure... I started to walk away...
- Master, oh master! Pyotr Petrovich! - I heard a voice, weak, slow and hoarse, like the rustle of swamp sedge.
I stopped.
- Pyotr Petrovich! Come here please! – the voice repeated. It came to me from the corner from the stage I noticed.
I approached and was dumbfounded with surprise. Before me lay a living human being, but what was it?
The head is completely dry, one-color, bronze - like an icon of an ancient letter; the nose is narrow, like a knife blade; You can hardly see your lips - only your teeth and eyes turn white, and from under your scarf, thin strands of yellow hair spill out onto your forehead. Near the chin, on the fold of the blanket, two tiny hands, also bronze-colored, move, slowly moving their fingers, like sticks. I look more closely: the face is not only not ugly, even beautiful, but terrible, extraordinary. And this face seems all the more terrible to me because I can see from it, from the metallic cheeks, that it is growing... it is straining and the smile cannot spread.”

What happened to the girl? (slide 29)

Will answer this question Baranovskaya Christina(slide 30)

Adrenal glands

Paired glands located at the upper edge of the kidneys. Their weight is about 12 g each, together with the kidneys they are covered with a fat capsule. They distinguish between the cortex and medulla. The hormone is produced in the adrenal medulla adrenalin. Its action is diverse: it increases the frequency and strength of heart contractions, increases blood pressure, enhances metabolism. Adrenaline is the most active hormone, especially when various dangers arise.

There is a known case in Japan where a fragile woman easily lifted a car with her child underneath it. Moreover, when she state of shock passed, she could not explain how it happened. Another example: newspapers once wrote about a hunter from Siberia who, fleeing from a predator, found himself in a tree, 3 meters above the ground, with skis on his feet. And there are a great many cases when a person jumped over fences, breaking all existing world records for high jumps, escaping from dogs.

It also secretes norepinephrine, which has a reverse effect, and corticoids.

Hyperfunction leads to hypertension - high blood pressure. Hypofunction to the development of bronze disease. The signs of this disease are described very well in the work of I. S. Turgenev “Living Relics”.

Teacher: In M. Bulgakov’s work “ dog's heart» is described interesting case. Let's listen Kuznetsova Ksenia.

“Winter 1924/25. Moscow. Professor Philip Philipovich Preobrazhensky discovered a way to rejuvenate the body by transplanting animal endocrine glands into people. Professor Preobrazhensky picks up on the street mongrel dog, sick and with ragged hair, brings him home, instructs the housekeeper Zina to feed him and care for him. After a week, a clean and well-fed Sharik becomes affectionate, charming and beautiful dog. The professor performs an operation - transplants Sharik with the endocrine glands of Klim Chugunkin, 25 years old, three times convicted of theft, who played the balalaika in taverns, and died from a knife blow. The experiment was a success - the dog does not die, but, on the contrary, gradually turns into a human: he gains height and weight, his hair falls out, he begins to speak. Three weeks later he is already a short man with an unattractive appearance who enthusiastically plays the balalaika, smokes and curses. After some time, he demands from Philip Philipovich that he register him, for which he needs a document, and he has already chosen his first and last name: Polygraph Poligrafovich Sharikov.”

Is it possible to transplant endocrine glands?

Reflection

So, let's remember everything we learned today (oral individual survey)

What diseases of the endocrine system are shown in the photographs? (Slide 32)

Fun Lotto Game

In front of you is a sheet with questions and a table with terms, multi-colored tokens. Read the questions, find the desired term in the table and place a colored token of the corresponding color. It is indicated in parentheses next to the question. When correct filling A certain color pattern will appear on the playing field. Begin.

1 option

Questions

Biologically active substances, formed in the endocrine glands and regulating various functions (hormones – red )

Thyroid hormone ( thyroxine – yellow )

The child's growth has stopped. He began to gain weight and his body proportions were disrupted. The tip of the tongue constantly began to protrude from the mouth. Disorders of speech, memory, and thinking began to be observed. These examples demonstrate disturbances in the body's functioning. What disease are we talking about? ( cretinism – orange)

What hormone deficiency causes this disease? ( growth hormone –blue )

An endocrine gland located on the undersurface of the brain whose hormones influence the hormonal activity of other endocrine glands ( pituitary – violet )

A doctor who deals with the identification, treatment, and prevention of pathologies of the endocrine system ( endocrinologist – green )

CRETINISM	A GROWTH HORMONE
THYROXINE
	ENDOCRINOLOGIST

Option 2

Questions

A disease that occurs when there is insufficient secretion of pancreatic hormone ( diabetes - blue )

Hormone secreted by the adrenal glands (adrenalin –red )

Mixed secretion glands include... ( pancreas – yellow )

What human disease is shown in the photograph? ( cretinism – green )

Signs of which disease are listed: darkening of the skin, lethargy, constant fatigue, joint pain, insomnia? ( bronze disease –orange )

What hormone does the thyroid gland secrete? ( thyroxine – violet )

CRETINISM	ADRENALIN
THYROXINE	DIABETES
BRONZE DISEASE	PANCREAS

We check the correct answers and evaluate our work (slide 33)

Teacher's story about the need to lead a healthy lifestyle (slides 34, 35)

What did we learn in class today?

Homework: paragraph 45, synopsis. Compose a crossword puzzle “Endocrine system”

One of the most important macromolecular groups in the human body are proteins. Moreover, their forms are very diverse: cell-type receptors, signal-type molecules, structure-forming elements, certain enzymes, oxygen-carrying substances and carbon dioxide(we are talking about hemoglobin). And this is not the entire list. It is protein that is one of the main elements in the bone composition, its active participation is present in the structure of ligaments, muscles, body tissues, thanks to it they actively grow and recover. So the role of proteins in the human body and metabolism is difficult to overestimate.

However, the functions of protein are not limited to all of the above; the fact is that this particular substance is an irreplaceable energy source. Is there some more characteristic feature similar substances - the human body, for a number of reasons, cannot be stored in reserve, therefore, in order for the human body to function in normal mode, you need to consume proteins on a regular basis, only then protein metabolism will be fine.

Metabolism of proteins in the human body and its features

If we talk about where protein metabolism begins, then it all starts in the human stomach. The process is as follows:

food that contains a lot of protein begins to enter the human stomach, where an enzyme called pepsin first begins to function, and also gets involved hydrochloric acid;
It is hydrochloric acid that ensures the level at which proteins can be denatured. When pepsin affects them, the proteins begin the process of breakdown, and polypeptides are formed, as well as the amino acids that are their components;
then the food gruel, which is called chyme, ends up in the small intestine;
the pancreas begins to work, secreting juice containing sodium bicarbonate (we are talking about soda);
hydrochloric acid is neutralized, which provides reliable protection for the human intestine.

It is very important to note that the body has the ability to synthesize proteins from amino acids necessary for its normal functioning.

All this is obtained from food, those proteins that turn out to be superfluous in this process simply begin to gradually turn into glucose, and there may also be a transformation into triglycerides. They have very important function- support energy and also help increase energy reserves in the human body.

The small intestine is also different in that it is where they begin excretory processes digestive-type hormones, while secretin is released, and it is such substances that promote further protein breakdown. Secretin also stimulates the secretion of pancreatic gland juice, which can also produce more elements of digestion.

Substances such as protease, elastase and trypsin are released here, and all this helps proteins to be better digested. When such enzymes come together, proteins complex composition begin to break down into certain amino acids. They are transported through the intestinal mucosa, its purpose is needed for the synthesis of other protein compounds, then they are converted into fats.

What is the role of hormones and enzymes in protein metabolism

Such difficult process how protein metabolism cannot occur without certain enzymes and hormones. Some of the functions should be described in more detail:

the role of enzymes in the small intestine and stomach is such that proteins begin to be broken down into amino acid parts;
HCI in the stomach area help proteolysis to develop;
Hormones that are secreted by intestinal cells regulate the digestive process.

Protein substances that are found in the pancreas and small intestine should not be broken down. To prevent this process, the pancreatic gland produces proenzymes that are not active. Inside the vesicles of the pancreas there are substances such as:

trypsin;
chymitrypsin;
chymotrypsinogen.

After the enzyme enters the small intestine, which is located within the walls small intestine, its connection with trypsinogen begins, after which the active form begins, that is, trypsin. Then, its transformation into active form, that is, into trinotrypsin. The function of such substances is that they break down large proteins into peptides, this is carried out through the process of proteolysis.

Then such small peptides also begin to break down into certain amino acids, and their transport begins through the superficial part of the intestinal mucosa, using amino acid transporters. The role of such transporters is to bind sodium and amino acids, then they are transported through the membrane. When sodium and amino acids appear on the basal cell surface, they begin their release.

It is noteworthy that the use of sodium as a transporter can be used repeatedly, and as for amino acids, they begin their penetration into the bloodstream, then transport begins to the liver area, as well as throughout cellular structure the human body in order to synthesize proteins.

If we talk about free amino acids, they are used for the process of synthesis of new types of protein compounds. If there are too many amino acids in the body, and so much so that it becomes simply impossible to store them, then their conversion into glucose begins, and conversion can also be into ketones, and if all this does not work, then the breakdown process begins. When amino acids are broken down, hydrocarbon-type compounds or nitrogen-type slags are obtained.

But you need to understand that if there are high concentration nitrogen, it can be toxic in nature, so first it undergoes appropriate treatment, due to which nitrogen is removed from the body. This biochemistry of the process is complex, but very harmonious; if such biochemistry is disrupted, the consequences can be very negative. If any negative symptoms are noticed, even the most insignificant ones, then it is necessary to undergo certain tests in a timely manner, there may be biochemical research blood and a number of other studies.

How is urea formed?

Protein metabolism involves a process such as the ornithine-type cycle, that is, the formation of urea. Here we are talking about a biochemical complex in which the formation of urea from ammonium ions occurs. This is necessary to prevent an increase in the concentration of ammonium in the human body when it can reach critical level. This process mainly takes place in the liver area; the renal area is also involved.

As a result of such a complex and coordinated process, molecular formation begins, and the molecules that are needed for normal functioning Krebs cycle. All this leads to the formation of water and urea. As for the removal of urea, this process is carried out through the kidneys; it is part of urine.

In order to have additional energy sources, amino acids are often used, this is especially true when the period of hunger begins. The fact is that when amino acids begin to be processed, metabolic products are obtained that have an intermediate form. There may be pyruvic acid and other substances here; all this requires additional energy sources, and here amino acids can provide significant support.

To summarize, we can say that as a result of protein metabolism, amino acids are needed in order to synthesize protein compounds that are necessary for the normal functioning of the human body. They can also be used as alternative energy sources, or they can simply be excreted, since they are no longer needed and should not be stored in the human body. So, for normal growth and functioning human body proteins are simply necessary, they are able to effectively restore tissue connections and maintain human health in perfect order. This also requires proteins, vitamins and minerals.

Indicators of the norm of free T4 in women by age and reasons for deviation

The normal functioning of the female body is impossible without the coordinated functioning of the endocrine system. Any hormonal disruptions immediately affect a woman’s reproductive system, metabolism, gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. Compliance with the free T4 norm in women of childbearing age is especially important. Thyroxine (T4) produced by the thyroid gland determines the possibility of conceiving and bearing a child. Deviations from standard indicators may indicate the development of pathologies or hormonal imbalance.

For women who have reached menopause, the T4 indicator no longer plays such an important role.

What is free thyroxine in women?

Thyroxine is a biologically inactive thyroid hormone, accounting for about 90% of the total amount of all hormones synthesized by the thyroid gland. Its form is unstable, therefore, with the help of enzymes, the substance is converted into a more stable compound triiodothyronine T3.

Thyroxine is contained in the blood either bound state, or in free form (no more than 0.1% of general meaning T4). The presence of unbound T4 is significant for the body, because. similar form is the most biologically active. The concentration of free tetraiodothyronine helps assess the functioning of the thyroid gland.

IN female body the role of thyroxine is difficult to overestimate. In addition to influencing the functioning of all vital systems, T4 regulates the functions reproductive organs, including responsible for the ovulation of eggs and strengthening the mucous surface of the uterus.

Norm of free T4 hormone

The level of the hormone in women practically does not change throughout life. From birth to onset reproductive age normal levels of free thyroxine tend to increase, and after 20 years they remain stable. A slight decrease in T4 is observed after the onset of menopause, closer to 50 years.

Table

Average values normal level free thyroxine in women of different ages are given in the table.

Fluctuations in unbound thyroid hormone values are observed in pregnant women. Such surges during this period are considered normal.

Deviations from the norm

Any deviation from the normal values of free T4 in a woman’s body, both up and down, indicates the presence of any pathologies. Increased content unbound T4 hormone may indicate the following disorders:

Reduced free T4 is diagnosed:

with the development of pathology in the pituitary gland or hypothalamus;
in case of heavy metal poisoning;
with primary or secondary hypothyroidism;
with endemic goiter.

After removal of part of the organ, the levels of thyroid-stimulating substances are also below standard values.

Deviations from the norm are possible during administration oral contraceptives. Sometimes disturbances in the functioning of the gland are observed in women after childbirth.

Symptoms of unstable thyroid function in women manifest themselves as worsening general well-being and loss of strength. The content of unbound substance T4 outside the normative values may be accompanied by convulsions and tachycardia. If you notice such symptoms, it is recommended to immediately consult a doctor.